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ilTHE  IRON  FOUNDER"  SUPPLEMENT. 

A  COMPLETE  ILLUSTRATED  EXPOSITION  OP 

THE  ART  OF  CASTING  IN  IRON. 


COMPRISING  THE 

ERECTION  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  CUPOLAS,  REVERBERATOR? 
FURNACES,  BLOWERS,  DAMS,  LADLES,  ETC.;   MIXING  CAST 
IRON;  FOUNDING  OF  CHILLED   CAR- WHEELS;  MALLE- 
ABLE    IRON    CASTINGS;     FOUNDRY     EQUIPMENTS 
AND    APPLIANCES;   GEAR    MOULDING  MACHINES; 
MOULDING   MACHINES;    BURNING,     CHILLING, 
SOFTENING;  ANNEALING;  POURING  AND  FEED- 
ING;   FOUNDRY    MATERIALS;     ADVANCED 
MOULDING;   MEASUREMENT  OF  CASTINGS; 

WROUGHT  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC. 
ALSO, 

THE  FOUNDING  OF  STATUES;  THE  ART  OF  TAKING  CASTS; 
PATTERN  MODELLING;  USEFUL  FORMULAS  AND  TABLES. 


BY 

SIMPSON    BOLLAND, 

Practical  Moulder  and  Manager  of  Foundries; 
Author  of  •'  The  Iron  Founder,"  etc. 

Kllustratett  toitfc  ober  Stoo 


FIRST  EDITION. 
FIRST    THOUSAND. 

NEW   YORK: 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS 

53  EAST  TENTH  STREET. 

1893. 


Copyright,  1893, 

BY 

SIMPSON  HOLLAND. 


ROBERT  DRUMMOND,   PRINTER,   NEW  YORK. 


INTEODUCTION. 


THIS  book  is  intended  by  the  author  to  complete  the 
work  begun  in  "  The  Iron  Founder,"  for  which  reason  it  is 
called  a  "  Supplement "  to  the  former.  Whilst  "  The  Iron 
Founder" — as  stated  in  the  preface  to  said  book — may  in 
all  respects  be  considered  a  moulder's  book,  for  the  reason 
that  the  subjects  treated  are  directly  in  line  with  the 
manipulations  called  forth  in  the  actual  daily  practice  of 
the  moulder,  the  " Supplement"  embraces  every  other  sub- 
ject concomitant  with  such  practice,  all  of  which  it  is 
essential  that  every  moulder  should  possess  some  knowl- 
edge of,  even  if  he  does  not  aspire  to  the  dignity  of  an 
expert  in  the  whole  art  of  moulding. 

The  author  realizes  the  difficulty  of  presenting  these 
somewhat  dry  and  matter-of-fact  subjects  in  a  manner 
calculated  to  command  the  attention  of  such  as  are  not 
directly  interested  in  foundry  affairs,  and  his  daily  ex- 
perience in  the  foundry  has  convinced  him  that  very 
few  of  the  rank  and  file,  even  amongst  moulders  them, 
selves,  care  to  peruse  the  apparently  tiresome  pages  of  a 
book  devoted  exclusively  to  matters  with  which  they  are 
brought  into  daily  contact.  It  has  been  his  aim,  therefore, 
to  treat  the  various  subjects  in  a  manner  somewhat  dif- 
ferent to  the  methods  usually  adopted  for  the  ordinary 
text-book,  and  by  this  means  excite  a  healthy  desire,  if 
possible,  for  a  more  extended  knowledge  of  what  is  herein 

iii 


iv  INTRODUCTION. 

attempted  to  be  explained.  At  the  same  time  care  has 
been  taken  to  avoid  the  introduction  of  anything  that 
would  in  any  sense  detract  from  its  worth  as  an  element- 
ary treatise  on  such  phases  of  the  moulder's  art  as  are 
duly  shown  forth  in  the  table  of  contents. 

The  all-important  subject  of  "  Mixing  Cast  Iron  "  is  dis- 
cussed in  these  pages  from  a  somewhat  different  stand- 
point to  that  usually  taken.  Foundry  equipment  and 
appliances  receive  special  notice  in  detail,  including  a 
table  of  dimensions  for  ladles,  and  the  latest  application  of 
machinery  for  moulding  as  well  as  other  purposes  in  the 
foundry.  Melting  in  Cupolas  and  Reverberatory  Furnaces 
occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  book;  and  the  original 
table  of  instructions  for  the  management  of  cupolas  will 
no  doubt  be  appreciated  by  all  who,  for  lack  of  time  or  a 
disinclination  to  ponder  these  subjects,  are  not  in  posses- 
sion of  such  data. 

The  founding  of  "Chilled  Car- wheels"  is  fully  ex- 
plained and  suitably  illustrated,  as  also  is  the  production 
of  "  Malleable-iron  Castings,"  etc. 

The  measurement  of  castings  necessarily  introduces 
some  arithmetic,  but  knowing  the  antipathy  usually  mani- 
fested by  those  who  unfortunately  know  little  of  these 
matters,  the  author  has  shorn  it  of  all  mystification,  and, 
by  a  few  practical  illustrations,  endeavored  to  make  it 
sufficiently  plain  to  be  understood  by  any  one  who  will 
make  the  effort,  no  matter  how  deficient  his  previous 
education  may  have  been. 

Of  late  years  the  modeler  and  sculptor  have  been  grad- 
ually establishing  themselves  as  a  part  of  our  foundry 
system,  and  not  a  few  of  our  modern  structures  are  being 
supplied,  internally  and  externally,  with  some  elegant 
examples  of  art  work  in  cast  iron,  which  have  been  pro- 
duced at  foundries  heretofofe  engaged  only  on  the  ruder 
castings  for  construction.  This  has  brought  us  into  close 


INTRODUCTION.  v 

contact  with  a  branch  of  the  art  hitherto  considered  ex- 
clusive, and  entirely  beyond  the  ordinary  moulder's  ability 
to  produce;  but  the  author  knows,  from  personal  experi- 
ence, that  all  such  exclusiveness  is  fast  disappearing,  and, 
owing  to  the  numerous  inquiries  he  has  received  from 
many  quarters  asking  for  information  upon  these  subjects, 
has  deemed  it  wise  to  insert  in  these  pages  an  account  of 
the  methods  generally  pursued  in  the  art  of  "Statue 
Founding,"  as  well  as  "  Pattern  Modelling," — in  clay  and 
wax,  and  "  Taking  Casts," — all  of  which  are  kindred  sub- 
jects,  a  want  of  the  knowledge  of  which  has  a  depreciative 
effect  on  the  moulders  of  the  present  day. 

SlMPSOK  BOLLAND. 
NEW  YORK,  November,  1893.. 


CONTENTS. 


Evolution  of  the  Iron  Founder's  Art 1 

Blast-blowers.  A  description  of  the  several  kinds  of  Blowing- 
engine's  used  in  the  past,  as  well  as  some  of  those  in  use  at 
the  present  day 13 

Mixing-  Cast  Iron 22 

Foundry  Cupolas.  The  Art  of  Melting  Iron  in  them,  with  Table 
of  full  instructions  for  their  erection  and  management 34 

Reverberatory  or  Air  Furnaces.     Their  use  for  the  purpose  of 

meliing  Cast  Iron  fully  explained. 55 

Casting  One  Hundred  Tons  of  Cast  Iron,  showing  the  construc- 
tion and  use  of  the  necessary  equipment  for  pouring  heavy 
castings:  Dams,  Receivers,  Air-furnaces,  Ladles,  with  Table 
of  Capacity  of,  Runners,  etc 67 

Castings.  How  to  obtain  their  Measurement  and  reckon  their 
Weights;  also,  the  Nature  and  Qualities  of  the  Materials  used 
in  producing  them.  Percentage  in  the  Foundry.  Important 
Facts.  Formulae.  Tables,  etc. 81 

Foundry  Appliances,  including  Block  and  Plate  Methods  of 
Moulding  ;  Gear  Moulding  by  Machinery,  and  a  description 
of  some  Modern  Moulding-machines 126 

Chains.  Beams,  Slings.  Hooks.  Ropes,  etc.,  for  lifting  and  han- 
dling all  classes  of  work  in  the  Foundry 159 

Pouring,  Flowing-off,  and  Feeding  Castings 170 

Studs,  Chanlets,  and  Anchors.  How  to  Use  and  how  to  Avoid 
using  them 198 

High-class  Moulding  Explained  by  a  description  of  different 
ways  of  moulding  a  Four- way  Venlilaliug-shaft 216 

Sectional  Moulding  for  Heavy  Green-sand  Work,  including 
Draw-backs,  Critical  Green-sand  Cores,  etc.,  or  some  things 

beyond  the  Capacity  of  the  Moulding-machine 283 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS. 


PAOB 

Hydraulic  Cylinder-moulding  under  difficulties;  or,  Big  Castings 

in  Little  Foundries 250 

The  Founding  of  Statues  in  Iron  aud  Brouze.  Explaining  the 
Cire  perdue  aud  other  processes;  with  a  review  of  the  Art 
as  practised  by  the  ancients  aud  up  to  the  present  time. . . .  261 
The  Art  of  Taking  Casts.  Explaiuiug  the  substances  used  : 
Plaster-of-Paris,  Bees-wax,  Dough,  Bread-crumbs,  Glue, 
etc.  To  take  a  Cast  in  Metal  from  any  small  Animal, 
Insect,  or  Vegetable.  To  take  a  Cast  in  Plaster  from  a 
Person's  Face.  To  take  Casts  from  Medals.  To  take  Casts 

in  Isinglass,  Elastic  Moulds,  etc 283 

Pattern-modelliug  in  Clay > 289 

To  Mould  a  Spiral  Post 292 

The  "  Berlin  "  Fiue  Cast-iron  Work 295 

Malleable  Iron  Castings.    The  processes  of  their  manufacture 

explained,  including  Annealing,  Practical  and  Theoretical..  296 
Chilled  Car- wheels.     Full  instruction  for  Pattern,  Mould iug 
Flasks,   Cores,    Chills,   Metal- mixing,   Castiug,  Annealing, 
Testing,  with  an  explanation  of  the  Theory  of  Chilling 

Castings 307 

Fire-clays  and  Fire-bricks 321 

Ganister 323 

Graphite  or  Plumbago 324 

Fuel 825 

Annealing 328 

How  to  Repair  Broken  or  Cracked  Castings.  The  Foundry 
Methods  of  "Burning  "all  classes  of  work  fully  explained 

and  illustrated 329 

Beams  of  Cast  Iron.    Some  of  their  properties  described.   Useful 

information  relating  thereto 344 

Wrought  or  Malleable  Iron.  A  brief  description  of  its  manu- 
facture from  the  Pig  Iron,  liefiuiug,  Puddling,  Shingling, 

etc 346 

Steel.  How  the  different  kinds  are  produced:  Blister  Steel, 
Shear  Steel,  Cast  Steel,  including  Siemens-Martin,  Besse- 
mer, etc 850 

Enamel  for  Heavy  Castings,  Pipes,  etc 853 

Black  Varnish  for  Ironwork ...  354 

Varnish  for  Pipes  aud  Ironwork.. 854 

Varnishes  for  Patterns 854 

Cement  for  Cast  Iron 855 

Mineral  Wool.    The  phenomena  of  its  production  explained —  855 


CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE 

To  distinguish  Wrought  and  Cast  Iron  from  Steel.. 866 

Tinning 356 

New  Tinning  Process 856 

Kustitiens  Metal  for  Tiuiiing 867 

Tin  Plate,  Ci^stallized 357 

To  Tin  Iron  Pots  and  other  Domestic  Articles 368 

To  Tin  Cast-iron  Studs  and  Cliaplets 358 

Case-burdening  Cast  Iron 858 

To  Chill  Cast  Iron  very  hard 859 

To  Soften  Cast  Iron 859 

To  Scale,  Clean,  and  Pickle  Cast  Iron 359 

To  Remove  Rust  from  Cast  Iron 360 

To  Scour  Cast  Iron,  Zinc,  or  Brass 860 

To  Solder  Gray  Cast  Iron 860 

To  deposit  Copper  upon  Cast  Iron 861 

To  Bronze  Iron  Castings 361 

Brassing  Cast  Iron 361 

Green  Bronze  on  Iron  Castings 362 

Bronze  for  Cast  Iron,  without  the  use  of  Metal  or  Alloy 362 

To  Galvanize  Gray-iron  Castings 362 

To  Galvanize  Cast  Iron  through 363 

Japanning  Castings..    368 

To  Enamel  Cast  Iron  and  Hollow  Ware 364 

Useful  Interest  Rules 365 

Interest  Table 366 

Weights  and  Measures 867 

Areas  of  Circles  and  Sides  of  Squares  of  Equal  Area 372 

Wages  Table 873 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT 


EVOLUTION    OF   THE   IRON-FOUNDER'S   ART. 

THE  term  "founding"  is  applied  by  many  persons  to  all 
processes  connected  with,  the  manufacture  of  articles  in 
metal,  whether  the  finished  product  has  been  forged  from 
the  malleable  metal  or  cast  in  moulds.  This  generalization 
is  entirely  misleading,  and  it  has  made  all  the  more  difficult 
the  work 'of  placing  the  origin  of  iron-founding  as  an  art. 
Iron-founding,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  the  art  of  preparing 
moulds  from  plastic  materials  of  such  a  nature  as  will  suc- 
cessfully resist  the  intense  heat  of  the  molten  iron, —  as 
loam  or  sand, — in  which  may  be  formed  the  object  to  be 
produced  in  iron,  the  process  being  completed  when  the 
iron  has  been  melted,  run  into  the  mould,  and  permitted  to 
solidify. 

Of  the  antiquity  of  working  in  brass  and  iron,  as  well  as 
the  more  precious  metals,  there  is  abundant  evidence,  in- 
cluding mentions  of  the  subject  in  the  earliest  books  of 
the  Bible.  That  the  iron  of  the  Hebrew  records  was  not 
cast  iron  is  made  to  appear  with  much  significance  in 
Isaiah  xlviii.  4  (supposed  to  be  about  700  B.C.)  :  "  Because 
I  know  thou  art  obstinate,  and  thy  neck  is  an  iron  sinew," 
—the  latter  word  being  a  plain  indication  of  the  quality 
of  toughness  common  to  iron  in  a  malleable  condition. 
Further  evidence  in  support  of  this  hypothesis  is  found  in 


2  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Psalms  cvii.  16:  "For  He  hath  broken  the  gates  of  brass 
and  cut  the  bars  of  iron  asunder."  A  marked  distinction 
is  here  observed  in  the  methods  of  spoliation :  if  the  iron 
had  not  been  malleable,  there  would  have  been  no  necessity 
for  the  cutting.  Some  knowledge  of  smelting  iron  must 
have  been  known  to  the  ancients;  otherwise  neither  Tubal- 
Cain  nor  his  Hebrew  successors  could  have  accomplished 
the  forged-iron  work  with  which  they  are  credited. 

An  ancient  method  of  smelting,  still  employed  by  the 
natives  of  India,  is  very  simple  and  effective,  probably  the 
same  as  that  used  by  the  Israelites  during  their  term  of 
bondage  in  Egypt.  On  the  whole,  it  is  probable  that, 
while  malleable  iron  was  in  common  use  among  the  ancients, 
they  were  practically  unacquainted  with  cast  iron  and  its 
uses;  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  the  mention  of 
iron  sculpture  by  the  Greek  writers  referred  to  objects 
which  had  been  beaten  out  by  hammering,  and  not  cast  in 
moulds,  as  was  the  case,  undoubtedly,  in  their  bronze  work, 
the  antiquity  of  the  art  of  casting  in  bronze  and  the  pre- 
cious metals  being  well  established.  The  processes  employed 
were  probably  similar  to  the  cire-perdue  process.* 

Much  stress  is  laid  on  the  statement  of  Pausanias  (A.D. 
120)  that  Theodoras  the  Samian  was  the  first  to  discover 
the  art  of  casting  in  iron  and  making  statues  of  it,  about 
440  B.C.;  if  he  was,  the  secret  must  have  died  with  him, 
there  being  no  evidence  of  the  art  at  that  time  extending 
beyond  his  island  home  in  the  Mediterranean.  We  must 
confess  that  the  state  of  the  mechanic  arts  then  existing  do 
not  harmonize  with  probability  in  Pausanias's  statement  ; 
bacause  to  mould  statues  in  cast  iron  would  have  demanded 
a  knowledge  of  materials  and  a  degree  of  skill  very  superior 

*  Cire perdue  (literally,  lost  wax). — A  French  term  applied  to  the 
process  of  bronze  casting,  wherein  the  article  to  he  cast  is  first  mod- 
elled ID  wax  ;  the  wax  model  being  then  inclosed  in  phislic  clay, 
upon  healing  which  the  wax  melts  and  runs  out,  leaving  the  mould. 


EVOLUTION  OF  TEE  IRON-FOUNDERS  ART. 

to  and  much  more  exacting  than  that  to  which  statue- 
founders  had  hitherto  been  accustomed  in  the  tire-perdue 
processes  no  doubt  then  prevalent.  But  further  on  he 
says,  "  To  make  statues  of  iron  is  most  difficult  and  labori- 
ous;" from  which  we  are  almost  tempted  to  believe  that 
the  noble  islander  did  accomplish  something  of  the  kind, 
after  all,  and  left  the  world  no  wiser  as  to  the  methods  he 
pursued. 

As  time  advanced,  a  growing  demand  for  implements  of 
war,  as  well  as  for  the  more  peaceful  implements  of  agri- 
culture and  other  domestic  arts,  created  the  necessity  for 
improved  systems  of  producing  malleable  iron  for  such 
purposes.  But  about  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury larger  furnaces  for  the  manufacture  of  cast  or  pig 
iron  were  introduced  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  such  iron 
being  subsequently  converted  into  malleable  or  wrought 
iron  in  the  forge-hearth. 

A  patent  was  granted  in  England  about  the  year  1544 
for  a  new  process  of  making  cast  iron,  but  works  written 
much  later  than  this  date  make  no  mention  of  castings 
being  made  from  this  metal:  which  seems  strange,  when  it 
is  certain  that  castings  had  been  made  from  the  earliest 
ages  from  other  metals  and  their  alloys.  About  1740,  we 
are  informed,  iron  cannon  were  successfully  cast  in  the 
South  of  England  by  workmen  who  were  afterwards  taken 
across  the  Channel  to  teach  the  Frenchmen  this  new  art. 
At  this  time  there  were  very  few  furnaces  that  would  pro- 
duce more  than  one  ton  of  pig  iron  per  day;  consequently, 
where  the  foundry  operations  were  of  more  than  ordinary 
magnitude,  a  number  of  these  miniature  blast  furnaces 
might  have  been  seen  at  work  together. 

Reaumur,  the  great  French  metallurgist,  published  in 
1722  an  interesting  account  of  the  methods  then  practised 
by  him.  The  remelting  of  the  pig  iron  had  previously 
been  conducted  in  crucibles,  but  he  conceived  the  idea  of 


4  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

facilitating  foundry  operations  by  melting  his  metal  in 
direct  contact  with  the  fuel,  using  for  this  purpose  what 
may  be  taken  as  the  forerunner  of  the  cupola  at  present  in 
use.  A  shaft  was  provided  which  fitted  the  top  of  the 
crucible,  into  which  the  iron  and  fuel  were  charged  at  the 
top  in  alternate  layers;  the  blast,  produced  by  two  large 
blacksmith's  bellows,  was  forced  in  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
shaft,  and  maintained  at  a  vigorous  rate  until  the  requisite 
quantity  of  iron  was  melted,  after  which  the  shaft  was 
removed,  the  debris  cleared  away,  and  the  crucible,  con- 
taining the  molten  iron,  was  emptied  into  the  moulds. 
From  this  we  may  date  the  beginning  of  modern  foundiy 
methods. 

It  was  not  till  after  Reaumur's  death,  in  1757,  that  these 
primitive  cupolas  came  into  anything  like  general  use, 
though  the  itinerant  founders  of  his  day  evidently  were 
not  slow  to  discover  their  practicability  as  portable  furnaces. 
He  thus  ingeniously  describes  these  tinker-founders  : 
"  There  are  founders  who  do  nothing  every  day  but  to  melt 
cast-iron  and  no  other  metal.  Their  number  is  not  large, 
and  I  do  not  know  whether  there  are  more  than  one  or  two 
in  Paris.  These  founders  travel  through  the  country,  and 
make  their  appearance  gradually  in  different  provinces. 
They  make  cast-iron  weights,  plates  for  different  purposes, 
cast  new  and  patch  old  hollow-ware.  These  founders  buy 
the  pig  iron  they  want  from  peddlers,  who  gather  cast-iron 
scrap  in  the  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris.  This  scrap 
is  exchanged  for  apples;  a  man  with  scales  in  one  hand, 
leading  a  horse  laden  with  poor  fruit,  does  the  business, 
exchanging  apples  for  iron,  weight  for  weight." 

The  "Philosophical  Transactions"  of  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  for  1747,  reviewing  the  art  of  making  cast  iron 
with  pit-coal,  and  casting  articles  therefrom,  — something 
which  had  been  taking  place,  secretly,  at  the  foundry  of 
Abraham  Darby,  Colebrookdale,  England,  from  1713,— 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  IRON-FOUNDER'S  ART.         5 

speaks  of  it  as  a  curiosity.  This  enterprising  gentleman 
hailed  from  Bristol,  having  leased  the  iron-works  at  Cole- 
brookdale  in  the  year  1707,  when  it  consisted  of  a  single 
small  furnace  and  foundry.  Before  locating  at  Colebrook- 
dale  Mr.  Darby  had  engaged  as  an  apprentice  a  young 
Welsh  shepherd  named  John  Thomas,  who  accompanied 
his  master  and  worked  in  the  foundry.  The  lad  observing 
the  ineffectual  attempts  of  a  Dutch  moulder,  thought  he 
saw  the  reasons  for  the  man's  failure,  and  was  allowed  to 
try  his  hand,  the  result  being  that  with  the  assistance  of 
his  master  an  iron  pot  was  successfully  -cast.  A  secret 
agreement  was  entered  into  between  the  two  to  keep  the 
secret,  which  was  loyally  kept  on  the  part  of  the  bo}T,  who 
was  ever  the  friend  of  his  master's  family  when,  in  after- 
life, they  were  sorely  tried.  The  great  secret  of  the  whole 
process  consisted  in  effectually  leading  away  the  gases 
generated  in  the  core  when  the  molten  iron  entered  the 
mould,  which,  if  left  confined,  must  inevitably  burst  the 
core  and  thus  spoil  the  cast.  Simple  as  this  may  seem  at 
this  day,  the  knowledge  of  making  such  casts  in  iron  was 
so  limited  at  that  time  that  they  were  enabled  to  keep 
their  secret  for  almost  a  century  afterwards. 

Abraham  Darby  died  1717,  when  his  new  enterprise 
was  in  a  flourishing  condition,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  who  was  named  after  him ;  and  it  was  through  the 
indefatigable  exertions  of  the  latter  that  coke  instead  of 
charcoal  was  finally  used  in  smelting,  about  the  year  17GO. 
Iron-founding  received  an  impetus  at  this  period  of  its 
history  such  as  it  had  never  before  experienced.  The 
steam-engine  of  Watt,  coming  into  use  at  this  time,  devel- 
oped the  iron  manufactures  at  a  wonderful  rate,  as  by  its 
means  blast  power  was  increased,  and  all  rude  contrivances, 
as  blacksmith's  bellows,  and  rotary  machines  driven  by 
horses  or  oxen,  which  had  been  employed  for  creating  blast 


6  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

in  furnaces,  were  gradually  abandoned   in   favor   of  the 
blowing  engines  driven  by  steam. 

Castings  in  iron  for  the  early  engines  of  Watt  and  Boul- 
ton  were  made  at  Colebrookdale,  as  were  also  those  for  the 
first  cast- iron  bridge,  which  was  erected  over  the  Severn, 
close  to  the  works,  by  the  third  Abraham  Darby,  and 
opened  for  traffic  in  1779.  To  meet  the  growing  demands 
of  this  newly  awakened  industry  the  Darby  firm  had  soon 
to  open  other  works  at  Ketley  and  Horsehay,  and  branches 
of  the  same  firm  were  established  at  Liverpool  and  Bristol; 
also,  agencies  for  the  disposal  of  machinery,  manufactured 
by  this  firm  for  mining  purposes,  were  opened  at  Trnro 
and  Newcastle.  The  renown  of  this  pioneer  foundry  has 
spread  throughout  the  world;  their  reputation  as  manu- 
facturers of  modern  machinery  is  only  equalled  by  their 
perhaps  greater  renown  as  producers  of  the  highest-class 
art  work  of  every  description  in  cast  iron  and  bronze.  The 
days  of  long  ago  are  still  forcibly  indicated  by  relics  which 
are  still  treasured  with  the  greatest  care,  although  the 
works  generally  are  for  the  greater  part  modern  in  arrange- 
ment and  equipment.  An  old  furnace  may  be  seen  on 
supporting  beams,  dated  "  1658,"  and  three  others  have 
"Abraham  Darby,  1777"  inscribed  on  them.  One  old 
foundry  has  a  plate  over  the  door  with  "  1774"  on  it,  and 
they  still  retain  possession  of  the  old  cylinder,  4  inches 
diameter  and  about  36  inches  stroke,  which  originally  be- 
longed to  Trevethick's  first  locomotive. 

We  can  conceive  of  the  difficulties  attending  the  early 
efforts  of  our  forefathers  in  the  manipulation  of  such  cast- 
ings as  were  needed  by  the  pioneer  engineers,  whose  de- 
mand for  fine  iron  castings  would  steadily  increase  as  the 
practicability  of  steam-power  became  manifest.  About 
the  year  1769  steam  was  universally  recognized  as  the 
chief  motive  power,  and  was  gradually  applied  to  all  de- 
scriptions of  machinery.  No  doubt  failure  often  resulted 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  IRON-FOUNDER'S  ART.         7 

when  trials  were  first  made  on  castings  of  the  nature  re- 
quired. All  this  new  work  had  to  be  done  by  moulders, 
who,  necessarily  without  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  mate- 
rials, must  grope  their  way  with  absolutely  nothing  but 
hard  and  inexorable  experience  to  guide  them.  Under 
such  adverse  circumstances  there  was  no  other  way  to 
success  but  hard  endeavor;  if  a  casting  was  bad,  it  was 
necessary  to  try  again,  and  again  if  need  be,  hoping  to 
discover  the  cause  of  failure  and  avoid  next  time  the  errors 
of  preceding  trials  arising  from  ignorance  of  first  prin- 
ciples. It  is  a  lamentable  fact  that,  although  a  century 
has  since  passed,  the  rank  and  file  of  moulders  are  to-day 
working  on  the  same  indefinite  lines. 

The  change  from  castings  of  a  very  ordinary  type  to  the 
superior  kinds  required  for  steam-  and  blowing-engines,  as 
well  as  machinery  of  all  descriptions,  which  at  this  time 
was  being  rapidly  changed  from  wood  to  iron,  must  have 
been  almost  bewildering,  as  nearly  all  parts  of  the  engine, 
including  crank,  connecting-rod,  and  beam,  were  then 
made  in  cast  iron,  of  elaborate  design  and  intricate  in  the 
extreme.  Good  moulders  must  certainly  have  been  every- 
where in  great  demand,  especially  such  as  were  able  to 
make  castings  that  must  of  necessity  be  made  in  loam  and 
dry  sand.  Examples  of  high-class  moulding  were  set  in 
those  early  days,  which,  with  very  few  exceptions,  have 
abided  with  us,  unaltered,  to  this  day. 

About  this  time  the  old  devices  for  manufacturing 
woollen  and  cotton  goods  were  supplanted  by  Arkwright's 
"  throstle  "  and  Crompton's  •spinning-mule,  which  in  time 
were  built  up  almost  exclusively  of  cast  iron.  Wooden 
bridges  began  to  disappear  in  all  directions,  and  cast-iron 
structures  were  erected  in  their  stead.  The  great  Henry 
Cort,  of  Gosport,  England,  invented  a  method  of  rolling 
iron  instead  of  hammering  (1783),  and  from  this  event  a 
demand  for  still  another  class  of  heavy  castings  was  in- 


8  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

augurated;  while  later  on,  al-out  1807,  paddles  were  intro- 
duced for  the  propulsion  of  ships,  which  called  for  superior 
castings  suitable  for  marine  engines.  Subsequently,  about 
1836,  the  screw-propeller  usurped  to  some  extent  the 
unwieldy  paddle,  and  with  the  advent  of  this  remarkable 
device  arose  the  finest  example  of  moulding  yet  seen. 
That  the  iron-founders  of  the  past  were  invariably  equal 
to  the  occasion  is  eminently  proved  by  the  casting  of  the 
screw-propeller,  which  to  this  day  is  moulded  after  plans 
discovered  by  our  predecessors  during  the  early  days  of 
steamboating.  The  advent  of  hydraulic  machinery  caused 
a  demand  for  castings  of  such  magnitude  as  to  make  the 
erection  of  special  plants  for  the  production  of  this  class 
of  work  an  absolute  necessity.  Improvements  in  agricul- 
tural and  textile  industries  also  demanded  the  erection  of 
massive  foundries, 

Up  to  thirty  years  ago  very  few  of  the  improved 
methods  of  moulding  now  practised  had  been  introduced  in 
the  foundries;  nor  had  any  one'  competent  foundryman  or 
engineer  attempted  to  supplant  the  cumbrous  and  un- 
gainly equipments  of  the  past  by  the  very  elegant  and 
efficacious  appliances  now  found  in  mammoth  model  foun- 
dries. The  ponderous  and  slow  wooden  cranes  have,  by  a 
gradual  process  of  evolution,  merged  into  machines  of 
wonderful  efficacy,  and  are  now  almost  automatically  con- 
trolled. The  overhead  trolley  for  conveying  molten  iron 
direct  from  the  cupola  to  every  part  of  tha  foundry  is  an 
improvement  on  the  old  system  of  hand -carrying,  necessi- 
tated by  the  magnitude  of  some  foundries  in  which  the 
distance  from  the  cupola  to  the  furthermost  parts  of  the 
shop  is  great;  and,  where  such  devices  cannot  be  applied 
conveniently,  we  see  well-kept  tracks  with  switches  in 
every  available  direction,  on  which  handy  trucks,  specially 
constructed  for  this  purpose,  are  used  for  conveying, 
with  ease  and  despatch,  every  material  used  in  foundry 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  IRON-FOUNDER'S  ART.         9 

operations.  For  the  time  honored  wheelbarrows  has  been 
substituted  the  conveyer,  which  hauls  everything  to  its 
destination  entirely  clear  of  the  foundry  floor.  Where 
once  all  the  iron  and  fuel  were  carried  by  hand  to  the 
cupola  scaffold,  we  have  now,  in  some  places  at  least, 
elegant  provision  of  either  electric,  steam,  or  hydraulic 
appliances  for  performing  this  work.  The  old  rule-of- 
thumb  methods  of  charging  the  cupola  have  at  last  given 
place  to  the  more  sensible  and  economical  system  of  weigh- 
ing all  material  in  correct  proportion.  Attention  has  been 
given  to  many  minor  things  also.  We  have  seen  even  the 
riddle  superseded  first  by  the  common  upright  screen  and 
then  by  the  swinging  and  sliding  machine  riddles,  and 
now  the  revolving  screen  is  to  be  seen  in  many  foundries. 
Cleansing-mills,  provided  with  an  exhauster  to  carry  off 
the  dust,  have  superseded  the  primitive  method  of  scrub- 
bing sand  off  the  castings  with  stone  and  wire  brush. 
Loam  mills  of  infinite  variety  and  degrees  of  effectiveness 
are  to  be  seen,  where  once  the  click  of  the  chopper  was  to 
be  heard.  Some  of  the  modes  devised  for  clamping  to- 
gether the  flasks,  seen  now  almost  everywhere,  are  in- 
genious in  the  extreme,  and  it  is  pleasing  to  observe  how 
common  at  this  time  is  Nasmyth's  great  invention,  the 
geared  ladle.  Once  it  was  thought  that  hay  and  straw 
rope  must  always  be  twisted  in  the  primitive  fashion;  but 
this  also  has  yielded  to  the  spirit  of  invention,  and  the 
rope-spinning  machine  is  throwing  off  bands,  well  spun 
and  true.  Machines  too  numerous  to  mention  have  been 
invented  during  the  past  thirty  years,  which,  without  the 
aid  of  a  costly  pattern,  will  make  either  spur,  bevel,  mitre, 
mortise,  or  worm  wheels.  The  extraordinary  progress  of 
the  cast-iron-pipe  industry,  with  reference  to  equipment, 
has  been  such  as  to  make  that  branch  of  moulding  almost 
independent  of  skilled  labor.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
many  other  classes  of  work  where  large  quantities  of 


10  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

duplicate  castings  are  in  demand,  such  work  being  now 
produced  in  the  several  moulding-machines  with  a  facility 
and  dispatch  impossible  by  the  old  methods  of  ramming 
by  hand. 

The  invention  of  plaster-blocks  paved  the  way  for  the 
improved  systems  of  plate-moulding  which  immediately 
succeeded  them,  introducing  the  interchangeable  modes  of 
flask-pairing  and  the  earlier  kinds  of  stripping-plates,  the 
latter  principle  constituting  the  chief  element  of  success 
in  the  modern  moulding-machine. 

One  of  the  greatest  aids  to  modern  founding  is  the 
system  of  tests,  chemical  and  physical,  to  which  in  some 
firms  the  pig  iron  is  subjected  before  it  is  charged  into 
Ae  cupola.  When  eminent  chemists  inform  us  that  what- 
ever quality  of  iron  the  iron-founder  demands  can  be 
furnished  by  the  furnace  manager,  it  would  seem  that  it 
only  remains  for  the  foundryman  to  acquire  such  chemical 
knowledge  as  will  enable  him  to  know  the  exact  measure 
of  every  element  needed  to  produce  the  desired  quality  of 
iron,  and  thus,  by  chemical  analysis,  determine  all  his  mix- 
tures. Keep's  tests  are  no  doubt  the  most  comprehensive 
of  any  of  the  physical  tests  for  this  purpose  which  have 
yet  appeared,  as  they  embrace  every  element  necessary  for 
discovering  the  nature  and  quality  of  cast  iron. 

At  present  we  seem  to  be  on  the  eve  of  great  changes ; 
and  it  is  somewhat  difficult  and  hazardous  to  predict  the 
channels  which  future  progress  in  iron-founding  will  take. 
Owing  to  the  system  of  dividing  labor,  now  becoming  so 
prevalent,  it  is  simply  impossible  for  the  ordinary  work- 
man to  master  the  details  of  founding:  this,  coupled  with 
general  lack  of  education,  leaves  him,  in  a  measure,  in- 
competent to  manage  even  ordinary  establishments  intelli- 
gently; but  how  utterly  incompetent  are  such  men  for 
becoming  heads  of  the  magnificently  equipped  foundries 
now  being  constructed!  To  operate  such  establishments 


EVOLUTION  OF  THE  IRON-FOUNDERS  ART.       11 

it  has  been  thought  advisable  by  some  to  change  the 
order  somewhat,  and  engage  the  services  of  an  educated 
engineer,  so  that  the  efforts  of  the  foreman  moulder  shall 
be  directed  in  paths  which  run  in  harmony  with  known 
physical  laws. 

When  so  much  has  been  accomplished  by  the  uneducated 
founder  in  the  past,  what  are  we  entitled  to  expect  in  the 
future  from  this  added  intelligence?  Time  will  show. 
The  age  is  pregnant  with  ideas.  The  full  blaze  of  scientific 
knowledge  is  lighting  up  dark  and  hitherto  mysterious 
nooks  in  which  nature  has  hidden  many  precious  secrets. 
To  suppose  that  the  useful  and  noble  art  of  iron-founding 
will  not  share  in  the  riches  thus  lavishly  obtained  would 
be  to  rank  it  as  among  the  least  progressive  of  the  me- 
chanic arts;  whereas  recent  advances  show  that  it  is  no 
longer  wedded  to  ancient  ideas  and  methods,  but  is  eager 
to  embrace  any  and  all  sound  improvement. 

The  consideration  of  the  possibilities  in  foundry  practice 
forces  itself  upon  the  attention  of  practical  men  who  now 
thoroughly  understand  these  possibilities.  Indifference 
is  giving  way  to  active  research  and  investigation,  with 
reference  to  the  supply  of  suitable  material  and  equipment. 
Schools  of  technology  will  yet  be  brought  to  see  the  im- 
portance of  giving  the  foundry  more  substantial  recogni- 
tion. One  of  the  best  modern  moulding-machines  owes  its 
origin  to  experiments,  conducted  by  its  inventor,  in  the 
foundry  of  the  Stevens  Institute, — a  fact  which  might  be 
profitably  borne  in  mind  by  the  faculties  of  other  technical 
schools,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  wofully  deficient  in  means 
for  teaching  the  art  of  founding. 

The  introduction  of  some  late  inventions  for  melting 
iron  indicates  the  march  of  progress  in  this  particular  very 
forcibly.  Every  effort  is  now  put  forth  to  prevent  the 
immense  waste  of  heat  which  occurs  in  ordinary  cupola 
melting,  by  a  disposition  of  the  tuyeres  such  as  will  burn 


12  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  ascending  combustible  gases  without  heating  the  fuel 
to  incandescence,  in  which  instance  the  developed  heat 
preheats  the  iron  and  fuel  before  it  reaches  the  melting 
zone.  What  may  we  not  expect  in  the  prevention  of  heat- 
waste  when  we  find  that  electricity  has  at  last  been  suc- 
cessfully applied  for  melting  cast  iron  ?  It  is  claimed  for 
the  "  Taussig "  electric  system  of  melting  cast  iron  in  ex- 
hausted chambers  that  oxidation  and  creation  of  air  bub- 
bles are  avoided,  and  that  the  cost  for  driving  the  dynamos 
is  50  per  cent  less  than  would  ordinarily  be  required  for 
melting  by  the  best  practice. 

The  advent  of  the  chemist  in  the  foundry  marks  a  new 
era  in  iron-founding,  and  is  perhaps  the  surest  indication 
of  a  desire  for  thorough  advancement,  as  by  his  aid  the 
indecision  and  doubt  hitherto  existing  must  ultimately 
cease.  Mixing  of  different  brands  of  cast  iron,  as  well  as 
the  alloying  of  cast  iron  with  other  metals,  to  obtain  a 
higher  degree  of  homogeneity,  or  any  other  special  quality 
in  the  resultant  casting,  will,  under  such  qualified  direc- 
tion, be  more  easy  of  accomplishment. 

Given  superior  direction,  we  may  confidently  anticipate 
the  time  when,  by  the  united  efforts  of  the  scholar  and  the 
trained  artisan,  the  art  of  iron-founding,  in  neither  equip- 
ment nor  skill,  shall  be  second  to  any  of  the  iron  indus- 
tries. 


BLAST.    BLOWERS.  13 


BLAST.    BLOWERS. 

A  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  SEVERAL  KINDS  OF  BLOWING- 
ENGINES  USED  IN  THE  PAST,  AS  WELL  AS  SOME  OF 
THOSE  IN  USE  AT  THE  PRESENT  DAY. 

BLOWING-MACHINES,  as  applied  in  the  foundry,  are  all 
such  as  are  made  to  produce  a  current  of  air  to  assist  the 
combustion  within  the  cupola,  etc. 

There  is  no  doubt  of  the  common  bellows  of  to-day 
being  about  as  old  a  contrivance  for  this  purpose  as  can  be 
found  anywhere. 

The  Catalan  forges  of  some  parts  of  Europe  furnish  an 
interesting  example  of  a  blowing-machine  called  a  'Tramp.' 
One  great  objection  to  its  use  is  that  it  can  only  be  em- 
ployed where  it  is  convenient  to  provide  a  fall  of  some 
yards  of  water.  The  reservoir  above  has  a  plug  in  the 
bottom,  which  fits  a  conical-shaped  hole  connecting  wi-th  a 
wooden  pipe  extending  down  to  the  wind-chest  below. 
The  water,  by  means  of  sloping  holes  provided  at  the  top 
of  the  pipe,  carries  air  down  with  it.  The  wind-chest, 
shown  in  article  "  Melting  Cast  Iron  in  Cupolas,"  is  pro- 
vided with  holes,  one  for  the  water  to  pass  away,  and  the 
other,  connecting  with  the  nozzle-pipe,  permits  the  air  to 
escape  in  that  direction.  The  water  as  it  falls  strikes  a 
platform  set  there  to  receive  it,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
separate  the  air  from  the  water.  The  height  of  drop  deter- 
mines the  strength  of  the  blast. 

Another  form  of  blower  that  has  found  favor  in  times 
past  is  two  wooden  boxes  with  open  sides,  and  made  to 
slip  one  over  the  other.  The  blast  is  produced  by  moving 
the  upper  enclosing  box  up  and  down  over  the  other,  and 


14  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


BLAST.     BLO  WERS.  15 

may  be  hinged  for  an  easier  motion.  The  lower  box  is 
provided  with  a  valve  opening  inwards,  and  has  a  nozzle 
attached. 

A  very  simple  form  of  bellows  is  made  by  the  Chinese, 
which  resembles  the  blowing-engine  very  much  in  its  ac- 
tion. It  is  composed  of  a  long  square  box,  provided  with 
a  piston  which  fits  all  its  sides,  and  a  nozzle  at  the  closed 
end.  When  the  piston  is  pulled  from  the  nozzle  it  opens 
valves  to  admit  the  air,  but  as  soon  as  the  movement  is 
reversed  the  valves  close  and  the  air  escapes  at  the  nozzle. 

Fan-blowers  seem  to  have  been  in  use  about  1729,  or 
perhaps  before,  as  one  Teral  is  supposed  to  have  in- 
vented one  about  that  time.  Smeaton  erected  blowing- 
engines  at  the  Carron  Ironworks  in  1760;  and  it  would 
seem  that  most  all  the  first  of  the  modern  blowing- 
machines  were  composed  of  cylinders  having  pistons,  all 
varying  more  or  less  in  the  application  of  the  power  to 
drive  them  and  obtain  a  steady  current  of  air.  A  blast- 
machine  common  in  times  past  was  two  cylinders  con- 
nected, one  of  which  was  provided  with  a  discharge-pipe. 
The  first  downwcard  stroke  of  piston  number  one  drives 
the  air  into  cylinder  number  two  through  a  valve  in  the 
foot-box,  which  rises  with  the  pressure;  simultaneously 
with  the  movement  downwards  of  piston  number  one, 
piston  number  two  ascends  as  far  as  it  may  be  forced, 
when  it  immediately  returns,  shutting  the  valve  and  forc- 
ing the  air  through  the  discharge-pipe,  while  piston  num- 
ber one  ascends,  filling  the  cylinder  with  air,  which  is 
again  driven  into  cylinder  number  two  and  ejected  as  in 
the  first  instance,  etc. 

The  cylinder  and  piston  type  of  blowing-engines  prevail 
in  nearly  all  the  blast  furnace  systems.  At  first  they  were 
made  to  force  the  blast  with  every  alternate  motion  of  the 
piston,  and  when  a  number  of  these  were  attached  to  the 
same  crank-shaft  run  by  a  water-wheel  they  succeeded  in 


16  THE  HWN^FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Fig.  2.— The  Sturievant  Steel  Pressure-blower  Blast-wheel, 


BLAST.    BLOWERS.  17 

producing  a  steadier  pressure  than  was  possible  with  only 
one  cylinder. 

The  water-wheel  has  now  been  superseded  by  steam  at 
most  places,  some  preferring  to  have  steam  and  blast  cyl- 
inder in  line  on  one  bed  horizontally,  with  both  pistons  on 
the  same  rod,  and  others  favoring  the  same  principle  ap- 
plied vertically.  The  very  large  engines,  however,  are 
invariably  operated  by  a  steam  and  blast  cylinder  on  op- 
posite ends  of  the  same  bed,  vertically,  with  a  beam  to 
connect  their  pistons. 

Fan-blast  machines  are  now  employed  in  many  found- 
ries. The  common  form  of  fan  consists  of  three  or  more 
spokes  of  a  rimless  wheel,  tipped  with  vanes,  and  made 
to  rotate  in  a  cylindrical  chest.  There  are  openings  on 
both  sides  round  the  spindle  for  the  admission  of  air, 
which,  sucked  in  by  the  centrifugal  action  of  the  fan  as  it 
quickly  rotates,  flows  towards  the  vanes,  and  is  driven 
through  an  exit  pipe  attached  to  another  part  of  the 
cylinder. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  these  engines,  which 
latter  have  become  subjects  for  the  exercise  of  the  in- 
genuity of  modern  inventors  in  this  line. 

The  compound  blowing-fan  of  Schiele's  consists  of  two 
fans  combined  on  the  same  shaft  so  as  to  act  successively 
on  the  same  air.  By  the  first  the  air  is  driven  into  a 
chamber  between  the  fans  at  a  pressure  of  6  ounces;  the 
second  receives  the  air  at  this  pressure,  and  by  further 
compression  delivers  the  same  into  the  furnace  at  a  press- 
ure of  12  ounces  per  square  inch. 

The  Sturtevant  pressure-blower,  Fig.  1,  has  spoked 
wheels,  Figs.  3  and  3,  having  conical  annular  disks,  mounted 
on  an  axis,  Fig.  3,  driven  by  two  belts,  to  prevent  any  ten- 
dency to  wobbling.  The  air  enters  between  the  spokes 
round  the  axis,  and  is  driven  forcibly  by  the  curved  floats, 
which  span  the  space  between  the  annular  disks,  being 


18 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Fig.  3.— The  Sturtevant  Steel  Pressure-blower  Journal-bearing. 


EL  A  ST.     BL  0  WE  US.  1 9 

discharged  into  a  peripheral  receiving-chamber,  whence  it 
reaches  the  eduction-pipe. 

The  Mackenzie  pressure-blower,  Fig.  4,  is  in  common 
use  in  this  country  as  well  as  in  Europe.  The  blades  are 
attached  to  fan  boxes  which  revolve  on  a  fixed  centre  shaft. 
Motion  is  imparted  to  them  by  means  of  a  cylinder,  to 


Fig.  4. — Section  of  Mackenzie  Blower. 

which  are  attached  the  driving-pulleys.  Half  rolls  in  the 
cylinder  act  as  guides  for  the  blades,  allowing  them  to 
work  smoothly  in  and  out  as  the  cylinder  revolves.  At 
each  revolution  the  entire  space  back  of  the  cylinder,  be- 
tween two  blades,  is  filled  and  emptied  three  times. 

Other  rotary  blowers  are  on  the  principle  of  the  rotary 
pump  or  rotary  engine,  having  two  portions  which  revolve 
in  apposition. 

Root's  pressure-blower,  Fig.  5,  is  similar  in  principle  to 
the  foregoing;  it  acts  by  regular  displacement  of  the  air 


TEE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


BLAST.    BLO 

at  each  [  jrg-olut^^  ^  !&  ^jp'loX/h^'iCoritalr  shafts,  geared 
toffetheryitr-'both  ends,  traverse  af  case '  of  the  iorm  of  two 

X\_      / 

semi-cylin^rs,>Fig.  6,  separated  by  a  .rectangle  equal  in 
depth  to  theS^arneter  of  the  semi-cylinder's,  and  in  width 
to  the  distance  D^trvreeii;  the  centres  of  the  shafts.  These 
shafts  carry  a  pair  of  solid  arms,  each  having  a  section 
somewhat  resembling  a  figure  of  eight,  the  action  of 
which  as  they  revolve  takes  the  air  in  by  an  aperture  at 


Fig.  6. 

the  bottom  of  the  machine,  and  expels  it  with  consider- 
able pressure,  if  required,  at  the  top. 

The  'Steam  Jet'  is  another  form  of  blower  now  fre- 
quently adopted,  but  may  with  more  correctness  be  de- 
scribed as  a  substitute  for  the  blower. 

'  Herbertz's  Steam  Jet  Cupola '  works  by  means  of  at- 
mospheric air  breathed  or  sucked  into  the  furnace  by  a  jet 
of  steam  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft.  This 
cupola  requires  no  motive  force,  and  the  vacuum  produced 
in  the  shaft  by  the  suction  allows  every  stage  of  the  smelt- 
ing process  to  be  observed  by  the  means  of  valves  and 
tubes  placed  at  different  heights,  thereby  furnishing  a 
convenient  means  of  controlling  the  work. 


THE  IRON-FOUNDED  SUPPLEMENT. 


MIXING  CAST  IRON. 

IT  is  the  business  of  the  iron-founder  to  produce  castings 
which  will  best  meet  all  of  the  numerous  demands — fine- 
ness combined  with  hardness,  fineness  combined  with  soft- 
ness, strength  to  resist  pressures  and  strains,  etc. 

He  must  also  be  able,  by  a  judicious  selection  of  different 
brands  of  iron,  to  produce  mixtures  which  will  meet  the 
almost  impossible  demands  created  by  faults  in  construc- 
tion, as  well  as  the  countless  conditions  which,  owing  to 
the  nature  of  the  case,  are  imperative,  and  can  only  be  met 
successfully  by  correct  mixtures. 

Now,  is  it  not  true  that  these  emergencies  are  met,  in  a 
great  majority  of  cases,  by  the  merest  chance,  and  not  un- 
til after  great  loss  has  been  sustained  from  repeated  ex- 
perimenting is  success  achieved  ?  And,  be  it  remembered, 
such  success  is  at  best  only  partial,  for  owing  to  the  lack 
of  correct  data  the  whole  experience  must  inevitably  be  re- 
peated whenever  the  emergency  again  presents  itself. 

I  would  ask,  What  guide  has  the  founder  ever  had  ordi- 
narily, other  than  the  bare  statement  that  No.  1  iron  is  all 
such  as  shows  large  crystals,  smooth  and  bright,  soft  al- 
most to  sponginess  in  some  cases,  and  that  all  such  irons 
are  to  be  chosen  for  use  in  the  production  of  light  castings; 
whilst  No.  2  is  to  be  recognized  as  being  lighter  in  color, 
and  to  have  smaller  crystals  than  No.  1,  eminently  adapted 
for  general  work,  machinery  castings,  etc. ;  and  again,  that 
No.  3  is  all  such  iron  as  shows  a  greater  density  than  No.  2, 
with  a  slight  mottle  indicated,  and  that  this  latter  is  to  be 
used  for  the  heaviest  work? 


MIXING   CAST  IRON.  23 

This,  strange  as  it  may  seem,  is  about  all  that  the  average 
founder  knows  about  cast  iron.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  so 
many  blunders  are  made  ? 

It  is  no  uncommon  thing  to  hear  of  some  founder  who 
has  met  with  a  difficulty,  caused  by  a  too  free  use  of  No.  1 
iron,  trying  to  overcome  the  same  by  making  still  further 
additions  to  his  mixture  of  the  same  brand,— this  because  of 
the  generally  accepted  idea  that  No.  1  iron  is  the  panacea 
for  all  evils  of  whatever  nature. 

Such  a  person,  wise  in  his  own  conceit,  would  ridicule 
the  idea  of  overcoming  his  difficulty  by  means  directly  op- 
posite to  those  he  was  pursuing;  nevertheless,  such  a  course 
would  in  all  probability  be  the  only  one  to  take  if  success 
is  to  be  assured. 

Not  unfrequently,  when  I  have  failed  to  obtain  a  degree 
of  softness  which  was  satisfactory  by  the  use  of  No.  1  irons, 
I  have  had  no  difficulty  whatever  when  No.  2  of  a  different 
brand  has  been  substituted,  and  it  has  been  no  uncommon 
thing  in  my  experience  to  discover  that  the  scrap-pile  con- 
tained the  most  valuable  stock  in  hand:  in  fact,  I  know  of 
one  foundry  in  particular  where  strictly  assorted  scrap  is 
used  almost  exclusively,  with  very  excellent  results;  but 
that  is  because  of  the  superior  knowledge  of  the  foreman, 
who  has  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  such  matters. 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  just  here  to  relate  an  experi 
ence  of  my  own  which  bears  directly  upon  this  subject. 

Some  years  ago  I  was  called  upon  to  take  charge  of  a 
foundry  where  they  had  been  experiencing  considerable 
trouble  with  their  iron.  Castings  innumerable  were  being 
rejected  owing  to  their  extreme  hardness,  and  it  had  be- 
come imperative  that  steps  be  taken  to  check  by  some 
means  the  enormous  losses  they  were  sustaining. 

Close  at  hand  was  found  a  stack  of  No.  3  pig  iron  which 
had  long  been  voted  useless;  this  was  flanked  by  an  un- 
sightly mass  of  promiscuous  so  nip.  whioh  under  the  circum- 


24  THE  IRON- FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

stances  it  was  considered  impossible  to  use.  In  addition 
to  all  this,  I  was  shown  another  pile  of  scrap,  remote  from 
the  foundry,  which  represented  the  accumulations  of  years, 
and  footed  up  to  the  respectable  sum  of  about  400  tons. 

It  was  not  long  before  I  discovered  what  had  caused  this 
extraordinary  waste,  one  chief  cause  being  that  the  mix- 
tures were  arranged  by  one  of  the  officials  in  the  office, 
whose  only  claim  to  distinction  in  that  line  of  business 
arose  from  the  fact  that  he  had,  in  some  remote  period  of 
his  life,  held  a  minor  position  at  a  smelting-furnace.  His 
method  was  to  take  portions  of  the  several  brands,  either 
alone  or  in  varying  mixture,  and  make  a  crucible  test  of  a 
very  limited  kind,  and  from  such  tests  a  formula  was  made 
out  for  the  guidance  of  the  foreman,  with  the  result  as 
above  stated. 

To  overcome  these  evils  recourse  was  had  to  very  strin- 
gent measures:  the  services  of  the  quondam  mixer  were 
dispensed  with  at  once,  and  those  of  a  metallurgical  chem- 
ist engaged,  by  the  aid  of  whom  I  was  enabled  in  six 
months  to  use  up  every  pound  of  this  so-called  obnoxious 
iron,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  my  employer,  from  whom 
I  received  the  highest  encomiums. 

I  would  here  observe  that  there  was  no  "  Scotch  "  or  No. 
1  irons  used  to  effect  this  result.  After  a  careful  analysis 
had  been  made  of  all  the  irons  on  hand,  and  their  natures 
distinctly  noted,  suitable  mixtures  for  the  various  kinds  of 
work  were  made,  and  all  upon  a  strictly  chemical  basis, 
with  astonishingly  successful  results. 

The  medium  through  which  all  this  was  accomplished 
was  a  brand  of  iron  (on  hand)  which  was  exceedingly  high 
in  silicon,  and  it  was  the  wonderful  results  produced  by  its 
agency  on  this  occasion  which  changed  all  my  cherished 
ideas  in  regard  to  mixing  of  metals  on  the  old  lines. 

My  firm  conviction  now  is  that  the  mixing  of  irons  can- 
not be  intelligently  carried  on  unless  chemical  analysis 


MIXING   CAST  IRON.  25 

forms  the  basis  of  procedure;  and  before  attempting  to  give 
any  absolute  data  for  the  guidance  of  others  in  the  mixing 
of  irons  by  this  method,  I  would  ask  the  reader  to  look  to 
me,  not  as  a  master  in  these  matters,  but  as  a  student  who 
has  just  touched  on  the  edge  of  a  new  truth  and  desires 
that  others  equally  interested  may  share  in  the  discovery. 

Mr.  Turner,  demonstrator  of  chemistry,  Mason  College, 
says:  "  (1)  Pure  cast  iron — i.e.,  iron  and  carbon  only — even 
if  obtainable,  would  not  be  the  most  suitable  material  for 
use  in  the  foundry;  (2)  that  cast  iron  containing  excessive 
amounts  of  other  constituents  is  equally  unsuitable  for 
foundry  purposes;  (3)  that  the  ill  effects  of  one  constituent 
can  at  best  be  only  imperfectly  neutralized  by  the  addi- 
tion of  another  constituent;  (4)  that  there  is  a  suitable 
proportion  for  each  constituent  present  in  cast  iron.  This 
proportion  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  product  which 
is  desired,  and  upon  the  proportion  of  other  elements  pres- 
ent; (5)  that  variations  in  the  proportion  of  silicon  afford 
a  trustworthy  and  inexpensive  means  of  producing  a  cast- 
iron  of  any  required  mechanical  character  which  is  possible 
with  the  material  employed." 

In  support  of  the  fifth  clause,  relating  to  silicon,  we 
quote  from  William  Kent,  in  American  Machinist,  Feb- 
ruary 20th,  1890,  where  he  says  that  "  Mr.  Charles  Wood 
claims  for  himself,  assisted  by  Mr.  Stead,  the  discovery 
that  silicon  had  the  power  of  reducing  the  combined  car- 
bon into  uncombined  carbon,  or,  in  other  words,  to  convert 
white  iron  into  gray  iron."  Experiments  made  at  numer- 
ous foundries  in  France  had  completely  established  the 
fact,  and  confirmed  the  statements  made  by  Mr.  Wood. 

The  custom  of  purchasing  irons  by  their  fracture,  Mr. 
Wood  said,  in  order  to  obtain  sound  castings,  was  a  great 
mistake  and  must  be  abandoned.  He  admitted  that  hither- 
to it  had  been  the  only  practical  system  known,  and  that 
founders  in  order  to  make  soft  castings  had  always  gone  to 


26  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Scotch  No.  1  or  like  rich  brands  to  mix  with  other  qualities 
in  order  to  produce  this  result;  but  he  had  shown  that  the 
commonest  iron,  such  as  mottled  and  white,  could  be  re- 
duced to  any  degree  of  softness  by  a  proper  mixture  of  sil- 
icon iron ;  and  an  iron-founder  by  following  this  rule,  and 
studying  analysis  of  the  irons  at  his  command,  could  now 
produce  in  his  cupola  the  exact  quality  of  iron  most  suit- 
able to  his  castings,  instead  of  as  hitherto  depending  upon 
special  and  expensive  brands,  which  were  often  very  un- 
certain in  producing  what  was  required,  although  thefrac- 
ture  might  be  all  that  was  desired,  whilst  the  only  explana- 
tion was  to  be  found  in  analysis. 

Such  evidence,  coupled  with  personal  observation  and 
constant  practice,  forces  us  to  the  conclusion  that  a  new 
era  is  dawning  upon  us  in  so  far  as  relates  to  this  subject, 
and  already  do  we  notice  astonishing  results  from  the  adop- 
tion of  the  method  of  chemical  analysis  in  the  production 
of  cast-iron  car-wheels.  We  quote  from  the  same  authority, 
who  says:  "Some  years  ago  it  was  thought  that  only 
'Hanging  Rock'  or  ' Salisbury'  cold-blast  charcoal  irons 
were  good  enough  for  car-wheels,  and  these  irons  brought 
very  much  higher  prices  than  other  irons.  The  chemists 
at  length  discovered  that  the  peculiar  characteristic  was 
that  they  were  lower  in  silicon  than  hot-blast  and  coke 
irons,  and  reasoned  therefrom:  (1)  that  if  other  irons 
could  be  found  having  identical  analysis,  they  would  be 
equally  good  in  quality;  (2)  that  if  the  silicon  in  coke  and 
other  hot-blast  irons  could  be  reduced  to  the  same  percent- 
age that  existed  in  these  cold-blast  irons,  either  by  partial 
blowing  in  a  converter  or  by  diluting  the  iron  in  the  cupola 
with  irons  or  steel  that  contained  little  or  no  silicon  (such 
as  steel-rail  ends),  the  same  results  would  be  found.  Prac- 
tical experiments  demonstrated  the  truth  of  these  theories; 
and  now  there  is  probably  more  iron  used  in  making  car- 
wheels  than  the  whole  product  of  the  'Hanging  Rock  '  and 


MIXING   CAST  IRON.  27 

the  '  Salisbury '  districts,  these  irons  no  longer  bringing 
the  fancy  prices,  relatively  to  other  irons,  that  they  once 
did:  irons  formerly  considered  not  good  enough  are  now 
in  demand  for  the  purpose,  and  the  cost  of  the  iron  used 
in  a  car-wheel  is  greatly  reduced. 

"  The  time  is  probabty  not  far  distant  when  pig  iron  for 
foundry  purposes  will  be  bought  and  sold  on  analysis,  just 
as  iron  for  Bessemer  and  other  steel  now  is;  and  the  results 
will  be  stronger  and  cheaper  castings,  more  certainty  in 
quality  of  product,  lower  prices  for  fancy  brands  of  iron 
sold  on  their  old  reputations,  and  higher  prices  for  scrap, 
white  iron,  silver  gray,  and  other  varieties  hitherto  under- 
valued." 

I  shall  now  attempt  to  give  an  account  of  some  of  the 
chemical  substances  found  in  irons  of  different  kinds,  and 
how  to  combine  them  to  obtain  certain  results. 

With  the  view  of  becoming  better  acquainted  with  the 
nature  of  '  pig  iron/  let  us  determine  what  influence  car- 
bon, manganese,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  silicon  have 
upon  it. 

It  must  be  understood  that  the  strength  of  cast  iron  de- 
pends on  (1)  the  amount  of  weakening  impurities  pres- 
ent; (2)  the  proportion  existing  between  the  combined 
and  the  graphitic  carbon. 

According  to  their  influence  on  the  properties  of  cast- 
iron,  the  elements  mentioned  may  be  classified  into  two 
groups:  (1)  Softeners — graphitic  carbon  and  silicon.  (2) 
Hardeners — combined  carbon,  manganese,  sulphur,  and 
phosphorus. 


28  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


GRAPHITIC   CARBON. 

Carbon  existing  as  graphite  in  cast  iron  makes  it  soft  and 
tough,  and  increases  its  fluidity. 

When  molten  iron  solidifies,  the  liberation  of  the  carbon 
occurs  at  the  instant  of  crystallization. 

Silicon  added  to  iron  produces  graphite. 

The  amount  of  graphite  in  gray  irons  varies  from  about 
1.5  to  3.5  per  cent. 

In  Scotch  irons  the  graphitic  carbon  should  not  bs 
below  3.0  per  cent. 


COMBINED   CARBON. 

Combined  carbon  in  proper  proportion  to  graphitic  car- 
bon increases  the  strength  of  cast  iron. 

Cast  iron  which  contains  too  much  combined  carbon  be- 
comes harder  and  more  brittle  in  proportion,  and  shrinks 
more  in  cooling  than  does  graphitic  carbon. 

Sudden  cooling  of  the  metal  prevents  the  liberation  of 
carbon  as  graphite,  and  retains  it  in  the  state  of  combi- 
nation with  the  iron. 

Repeated  remelting  increases  the  combined  carbon,  and 
when  silicon  is  taken  from  iron  the  combined  carbon  is 
also  increased. 

For  soft  castings  the  mixture  should  not  contain  over 
0.2  per  cent  of  combined  carbon,  but  for  strong  castings 
0.4  to  0.8  per  cent  is  admissible,  and  in  some  cases  even 
more. 

So-called  "  Scotch"  irons  or  "  softeners"  should  contain 
a  maximum  of  graphitic  and  a  minimum  of  combined 
carbon.  The  best  brands  of  these  irons  sometimes  contain 
less  than  0.1  per  cent  of  combined  carbon. 


MIXING   CAST  IRON.  29 


MANGANESE. 

Manganese  tends  to  the  formation  of  combined  carbon, 
reduces  the  tensile  strength,  makes  the  iron  hard  and 
brittle,  causes  more  waste  by  reason  of  the  formation  of 
additional  slag,  and  acts  in  a  contrary  direction  to  silicon. 

Manganese  in  foundry  irons  varies  from  mere  traces  to 
over  2.0  per  cent. 

For  the  reasons  as  herein  stated,  manganese  can  only  be 
tolerated  in  very  strong  castings,  and  even  then  should  not 
exceed  in  the  mixture  over  0.5  per  cent. 


SULPHUR. 

Sulphur  contributes  to  retain  the  carbon  in  the  combined 
state,  and  probably  also  promotes  the  formation  of  com- 
bined carbon,  and  consequently  hardens  the  castings. 

In  foundry  irons  this  element  should  not  exceed  0.1  per 
cent. 


PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphorus  causes  hardness  and  brittleness  by  lowering 
the  separation  of  graphite,  but  increases  fluidity. 

Phosphorus  in  foundry  irons  varies  from  0.2  to  1.0  per 
cent,  and  sometimes  even  more;  but  for  best  results  in 
foundry  mixtures,  it  should  not  exceed  0.5  per  cent,  or, 
preferably,  0.3  per  cent. 

The  injurious  effects  of  phosphorus  become  more  ap- 
parent in  proportion  as  the  percentage  of  combined  carbon 
increases. 

High  phosphorus  is  desirable  only  in  cases  where  great 
fluidity,  regardless  of  strength,  is  the  chief  desideratum. 


30  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


SILICON". 

Silicon  increases  fluidity,  and  reduces  hardness  and 
shrinkage  of  castings  by  its  influence  on  the  combined 
carbon,  changing  it  into  graphitic;  but  after  the  bulk  of 
the  carbon  has  become  graphitic,  through  an  addition  of 
silicon,  any  further  addition  of  silicon  hardens  the  casting. 

In  the  foundry  the  problem  is  to  have  the  right  propor- 
tions of  combined  and  graphitic  carbon  in  the  resultant 
castings,  and  the  fundamental  laws  in  foundry  practice 
are,  that  in  white  pig  iron  an  addition  of  silicon  precipi- 
tates the  combined  carbon  in  the  form  of  graphitic  carbon, 
and  causes  gray  iron  to  be  produced,  and  that  in  gray  pig 
iron  the  expulsion  of  silicon  converts  the  graphitic  carbon 
into  combined  carbon  and  produces  white  iron. 

The  variations,  within  certain  limits,  in  the  proportions 
of  silicon,  afford  a  reliable  means  of  producing  castings  of 
any  mechanical  character  which  is  possible  with  the  ma- 
terials employed;  but  the  percentage  of  silicon  required 
depends  greatly  upon  the  condition  in  which  the  carbon 
exists  in  the  iron  to  begin  with,  viz.,  in  an  iron  when  the 
bulk  of  the  carbon  is  already  graphitic,  more  silicon  may 
weaken  the  casting  and  make  it  brittle. 

Thus  by  a  judicious  use  of  silicon  the  proportioning  of 
the  carbon  may  be  accomplished  according  to  the  wish  of 
the  founder. 

The  amount  of  silicon  producing  the  maximum  of 
strength  is  about  1.8  to  2.0  per  cent  when  a  white  base  is 
used. 

The  strongest  castings  are  obtained  from  irons  which, 
when  melted  alone,  will  produce  sound  castings  with  the 
least  amount  of  graphite,  and  each  addition  of  silicon  to 
such  iron  wrill  decrease  strength. 

When  strength  is  desired,  it  should  also  be  borne  in  mind 


MIXING   CAST  IRON.  31 

that  the  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  manganese  must  be  kept 
low,  or  within  certain  limits. 

Gray  foundry  irons  contain  from  1.0  to  5.0  per  cent, 
ferro  silicons  from  5.0  to  14.0  per  cent,  and  castings  will 
vary  from  1.5  to  3.0  per  cent  of  silicon. 

In  figuring  for  the  silicon  contained  in  scrap-iron  the 
following  will  be  found  a  safe  estimate :  1.5  per  cent  for 
scrap  from  castings  which  show  a  gray  fracture;  1.0  per 
cent  for  such  as  show  a  mottled  fracture;  0.5  per  cent  for 
turnings  (cast)  when  clean ;  0.0  per  cent  when  rusty,  and 
the  same  for  burnt  iron. 

The  percentage  of  silicon  to  be  figured  for  in  white  pig 
iron  is  about  0.5. 

In  the  paper  written  by  W.  J.  Keep,  Detroit,  Mich.,  en- 
titled "  Silicon  in  Cast  Iron,"  the  whole  subject  is  treated 
in  a  masterly  manner,  and  all  who  carefully  peruse  its 
pages  must  inevitably  agree  with  that  illustrious  investi- 
gator in  the  conclusions  he  draws  with  regard  to  the  won- 
derful element  which  he  so  ably  discusses.  In  the  last  clause 
of  his  paper  he  says :  "  We  have  seen,  however,  that  a  white 
iron  which  will  invariably  give  porous  and  brittle  castings 
can  be  made  solid  and  strong  by  the  addition  of  silicon ; 
that  a  further  addition  of  silicon  will  turn  the  iron  gray, 
and  that  as  the  gray  ness  increases  the  iron  will  grow 
weaker;  that  excessive  silicon  will  again  lighten  the  grain, 
and  cause  a  hard  and  brittle  as  well  as  a  very  weak  iron ; 
that  the  only  softening  and  shrinkage-lessening  influence 
of  silicon  is  exerted  during  the  time  when  graphite  is 
being  produced,  and  that  silicon  of  itself  is  not  a  softener 
or  a  lessener  of  shrinkage,  but  through  its  influence  on 
carbon,  and  only  during  a  certain  stage,  it  does  produce 
these  effects." 

From  the  foregoing  it  must  be  inferred  that  if  founders 
are  to  keep  pace  with  this  age  of  discovery  they  must  be 
willing  to  leave  the  old  beaten  tracks  of  indecision  and 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

doubt,  and  seize  upon  the  more  tangible  methods  which 
science  reveals  to  us  every  day. 

The  suggestions  herein  contained  should,  I  think,  go 
far  owards  making  what  has  hitherto  seemed  a  mystery 
appear  as  a  problem  easy  of  solution :  for  instance,  a  cast- 
ing is  required  that  shall  meet  certain  conditions;  a  careful 
study  of  the  foregoing  will  enable  the  founder  to  know 
what  proportion  of  the  several  elements  may  with  safety 
be  allowed  to  enter  into  the  mixture,  and  knowing  from 
previous  analysis  what  the  stock  consists  of,  he  can  at  once 
decide  which  course  to  pursue,  and  all  this  with  a  positive- 
ness  which  is  simplicity  itself. 

The  reader  will  also  see  how  effectually  this  method  will 
eradicate  the  old  foundry  nomenclature,  as,  instead  of  the 
present  distinguishing  terms  as  applied  to  cast  iron  in 
stock,  we  should  know  them  according  to  analysis,  as 
brands  high,  medium,  or  low  in  one  or  more  of  their  con- 
stituent elements. 

Of  course  a  thorough  knowledge  of  this  proposed  inno- 
vation will  mark  a  new  era  in  the  prices  of  cast  iron,  as 
before  stated,  because  the  demands  for  so-called  No.  1 
irons  will  not  necessarily  be  as  urgent  as  is  now  the  case; 
and  I  am  surprised  that  employers  have  not  before  now 
grasped  the  situation,  for  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
if  the  services  of  the  metallurgical  chemist  were  more  gen- 
erally insisted  upon,  and  the  proposed  method  adopted  in 
its  entirety,  an  immense  saving  would  be  effected,  as  lower 
grades  of  iron  could  be  used  with  absolute  certainty. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  founder  can,  under  any 
circumstances,  omit  the  care  and  supervision  always  requi- 
site where  the  best  practice  is  to  be  obtained. 

While  scrap,  so-called,  ceases  under  the  proposed  change 
to  be  a  drug,  and  becomes  in  some  instances  a  prime  ne- 
cessity, every  precaution  must  be  taken  to  insure  its  suc- 
cessful reduction  in  the  cupolr ;  all  such  as  is  very  dirty 


MIXING   CAST  IRON. 

should  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  when  there  is  a  large 
quantity  of  very  fine  scrap  it  is  preferable  to  charge  it  all 
together,  at  the  last  of  the  heat,  mixed  with  as  much  high 
silicon  iron  as  will  insure  its  conversion  into  a  desirable 
mixture. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  scrap,  especially  such  as  has 
been  frequently  remelted,  contains  a  larger  amount  of  com- 
bined carbon  than  the  original  pig  from  which  it  was  made, 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  understanding  that  such  scrap, 
judiciously  used,  will  neutralize  any  tendency  to  sponginess 
which  may  be  inherent  in  the  pig,  such  mixtures  to  be 
proportioned  according  to  the  degree  of  fineness  desired  in 
the  resultant  casting. 

Too  little  care  is  exercised  in  the  choice  of  a  man  to 
attend  the  cupola;  and  if  employers  could  be  made  to  see 
how  much  they  lose  every  year  through  sheer  incompe- 
tency  in  the  management  of  that  important  department, 
we  should  soon  see  a  different  class  of  men  employed. 
An  ignorant  man  cannot  be  expected  to  take  any  interest 
in  mixtures,  economy,  and  the  numberless  other  important 
factors  which  are  indispensable  where  the  best  results  are 
looked  for. 

A  carefully  kept  record  of  every  day's  melting  is  abso- 
lutely necessary, — for,  however  precise  the  mixtures  may 
be  made,  there  will  always  be  neutralizing  influences,  more 
or  less,  at  work  to  make  such  a  course  indispensable, — the 
several  adverse  results  can  be  noted,  and  the  reasons  for 
such  inquired  into. 

Physical  tests  must  also  be  taken;  for  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  in  this  business  nothing  is  absolute,  so  many 
things,  unavoidable  sometimes  (conflicting,  nevertheless), 
such  as  different  degrees  of  heat,  rapid  melting  or  the  op- 
posite, and  countless  other  contingencies  exist;  and  these 
make  it  imperative  that  test-bars  be  made  each  melt,  with 
the  view  of  ascertaining  the  exact  amount  of  shrinkage, 


34  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

tendency  to  sink  or  draw,  tendency  to  chill,  degree  of 
hardness,  strength,  etc.,  all  of  which  make  useful  data  for 
future  reference. 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS. 

THE  ART  OF  MELTING  IRON  IN  THEM,  WITH  TABLE  OF 
FULL  EXPLANATIONS  FOR  THEIR  ERECTION  AND 
MANAGEMENT. 

THE  cupola  is  now  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in 
foundry  economy.  Its  management  commands  the  atten- 
tion of  the  founder  to  a  far  greater  extent  to-day  than  it 
has  ever  done  in  the  past.  No  matter  what  pains  may  be 
taken  to  insure  a  good  and  safe  mould,  every  attempt  in 
that  direction  will  be  neutralized  if  the  molten  iron 
supplied  for  filling  it  is  not  in  every  sense  up  to  that 
standard  of  excellence  which  a  right  use  of  the  materials 
employed  warrants  us  to  expect. 

The  truth  of  the  above  has  been  so  often  demonstrated, 
that  any  further  allusion  to  the  fact  would  be  superfluous 
here.  The  science  of  melting  in  cupolas  seems  to  have 
made  very  slow  progress,  until  it  was  seen  by  some  of  the 
advanced  thinkers  on  the  subject  that  there  was  "  money 
in  it";  then  the  services  of  the  engineer  and  scientist  were 
enlisted  in  the  cause,  and  specialists  in  the  manufacture  of 
cupolas  and  blowers  were  to  be  found  everywhere. 

A  result  of  this  change  in  the  order  of  things  is  that, 
instead  of  working,  as  has  hitherto  been  the  case,  by  the 
"rule  of  thumb,"  we  are  now  enabled  to  measure,  with  a 
degree  of  accuracy  almost  marvellous,  the  air,  fuel,  capacity 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS.  35 

of  cupola,  and  pressure  of  blast,  etc.,  required  to  melt  a 
given  quantity  of  iron  in  a  specified  time.  True,  we  do  not 
always  accomplish  this  with  the  degree  of  accuracy  above 
spoken  of,  but  in  nearly  every  case  of  failure  the  cause 
may  be  traced  to  the  non-fulfilment  of  the  known  condi- 
tions. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  intelligence  of  the 
melter  has  not  grown  with  the  steady  improvements  now 
being  established  in  nearly  all  of  our  leading  establish- 
ments; consequently  it  requires  the  constant  attention  of 
foreman  or  manager  to  insure  a  correct  manipulation  of 
improved  cupolas  and  their  adjuncts. 

The  thoughtful  founder  has  profited  to  an  appreciable 
extent  by  reason  of  the  claims  for  recognition  made  by  the 
manufacturers  of  cupolas  and  blowers,  for  in  order  to  sub- 
stantiate such  claims  they  have  flooded  the  market  with 
catalogues  and  pamphlets,  which  contain  an  elucidation  of 
the  science  of  melting  such  as  cannot  be  found  anywhere 
else. 

This  literature,  made  purposely  plain,  has  been  read 
extensively,  with  very  good  results :  a  better  feeling  has  been 
established  between  the  workman  and  the  scholar,  and 
there  is  now  no  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  practical  founder 
that  the  day  of  mystery  is  past,  for  very  much  if  not  all 
>f  the  mystery  has  been  scattered  by  those  very  scholars 
whom  he  has  always  been  taught  to  despise. 

The  good  resulting  from  this  improved  education  in 
matters  relating  to  the  melting  of  iron  in  cupolas  is 
nowhere  seen  to  better  advantage  than  in  the  erection  and 
management  of  what  may  be  called  the  common  cupola, 
which,  notwithstanding  the  immense  number  of  patent 
ones  sold,  still  finds  a  place  in  every  land,  and  I  suppose 
always  will.  It  must  strike  the  interested  observer  that, 
after  all,  there  is  not  very  much  difference  in  the  construc- 
tion of  cupolas.  Most  of  the  so-called  '  improved  '  have 


36  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

made  their  debut  within  the  last  thirty-five  years,  and  verv 
many  of  th'eni  have,  after  a  short  trial,  been  changed  back  to 
the  old  style,  with  considerable  profit  to  those  interested. 

Others  are  simply  e  tolerated '  because  they  are  neither 
better  nor  worse  than  the  old  style";  and  not  a  few  of  the 
really  meritorious  cupolas  are  producing  minimized  results 
from  the  simple  cause  that  there  is  not  sufficient  intel- 
ligence expended  on  their  management.  In  a  number  of 
cases,  when  the  formulas  furnished  by  the  patentees  for 
guidance  in  the  management  of  their  cupolas  are  followed 
to  the  letter,  very  excellent  results  ensue,  both  time  and 
money  being  saved  by  adopting  them ;  but  as  these  formu- 
las are  carefully  prepared  by  experts,  and  are  in  the  main 
reliable,  we  need  not  inquire  into  their  respective  merits, 
but  proceed  at  once  to  an  exposition  of  the  construction 
and  management  of  the  common  cupola,  for,  on  account  of 
the  extra  cost  of  erection,  joined  to  the  strict  management 
required  for  the  successful  working  of  most  patent  cupolas, 
there  will,  I  presume,  always  be  a  demand  for  the  former. 

The  blast-furnace,  in  some  form  or  other,  has  always 
had  a  place  in  the  metallurgical  arts,  and  dates  back  to  the 
earlier  dynasties  of  the  ancient  empire  of  Egypt;  true, 
they  were  very  simple  contrivances,  but  that  which  was 
accomplished  is  made  to  appear  all  the  more  wonderful  in 
view  of  their  simplicity.  The  Catalan  furnace  is  a  type  of 
some  of  these  old-time  smelting  processes,  and,  primitive 
as  they  were,  could  be  found  in  use  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  a  few  years  back ;  these  were  simply  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  with  walled  sides,  into  which  a  copper  tuyere  pipe 
penetrated.  When  the  charcoal  and  ore  had  been  properly 
placed  within  this  hole  the  blast  was  forced  through  the 
tuyere  pipe  by  some  of  the  antiquated  methods  then  in 
vogue,  until  the  molten  iron  was  produced. 

At  Fig.  7  will  be  seen  a  longitudinal  vertical  section  of 
the  Catalan  furnace,  which,  as  will  be  observed,  has  no 


chimneys. 

of  the  tromVfejilo wring  engine; 
means  of  a  fa^^^fyater.  of  about 
a  tube  into  the 


part 


37 

ower'part 
bduced  by 
!eet  through 
the  blast- 


pipe  is  connected,  the  water  escaping  through  a  pipe  below. 
This  apparatus  is  on  the  outside  of  the  building,  and  is 
said  to  afford  a  continuous  blast  of  great  regularity. 

Now  if  we  continue  the  walls  of  this  primitive  contriv- 
ance, what  do  we  obtain  in  reality  other  than  the  cupola  of 


Tronipe  or  Slower 


Catalan  Furnace 


Fig.  7. 


to-day,  exact  in  every  particular  so  far  as  the  principles 
involved  for  melting  iron  are  concerned  ? 

Fig.  8  shows  sections  and  elevation  of  what  was  con- 
sidered a  good  type  of  cupola  fifty  years  ago,  and  of  which 
type  there  are  large  numbers  still  working  in  England  and 
in  parts  of  the  European  continent,  as  well  as  still  a  few 
in  some  of  the  remote  parts  of  this  country.  There  is 
really  no  essential  difference  betwixt  the  cupola  shown  at 
Fig.  8  and  that  seen  at  Fig.  9,  except  that,  instead  of  the 
bottom  resting  on  a  solid  foundation,  as  at  Fig.  8,  the  one 
at  Fig.  9  is  supported  by  four  columns  A,  which  allows  for 


38 


THE  IRON-tOUNDElt  SUPPLEMENT. 


Section  of  Fig 


floor  Un 

'^-'tinder  around  Mnin  Blast  Pi$e-^ 


m 


Fig.  8. 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS.  39 

the  dropping  out  of  the  whole  contents  of  the  cupola  at 
once,  swing-doors  B  being  provided  for  that  purpose,  whilst 
in  the  former  case  the  cupola,  when  done  working,  must 
be  raked  out  with  hooks  through  large  apertures  A  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose. 

Another  feature  which  commands  attention  is  the  sub- 
stitution of  a  wind-box  round  the  cupola,  connecting  with 
a  system  of  pipes  above,  for  the  underground  arrangement 
shown  at  B,  B,  Fig.  8 ;  this  allows  for  the  multiplication 
of  tuyeres  or  any  other  changes  which  experience  may  sug- 
gest, being  made  with  very  little  trouble  or  expense. 

A  careful  examination  of  Fig.  9,  aided  by  the  table 
which  accompanies  this  article,  will  enable  any  one  to 
build  a  cupola  after  the  pattern  shown,  which  pattern  is, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  what  we  may  call  a  common 
cupola,  in  contradistinction  to  all  such  as  are  protected  by 
letters  patent. 

Let  us  now  consider  in  detail  the  various  requirements 
for  the  erection  and  management  of  such  a  cupola. 

LOCATION    OF    CUPOLA. 

What  shall  be  its  capacity,  and  where  shall  it  be  located  ? 
are  very  important  points  to  be  considered.  With  regard 
to  the  latter  query,  due  care  should  always  be  exercised 
to  choose  a  location  which  will  be  equidistant  from  all  its 
parts,  for,  whether  the  iron  is  carried  in  shanks,  run  on 
trucks,  or  changed  from  crane  to  crane  in  ladles,  this 
disposition  will  give  an  equal  and  rapid  distribution. 

A  very  good  axiom  is  that  of  Mr.  Kirk's,  who,  in  his 
very  excellent  work  "  Founding  of  Metals,"  says :  "  It  is 
easier  to  wheel  pig  iron  to  a  cupola  than  it  is  to  carry 
molten  iron  away  from  it." 


40 


THE  IRON-  FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Fig.  9. 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS.  41 


CAPACITY    OF   CUPOLA. 

The  accompanying  table  will  be  of  service  in  deter- 
mining the  capacity  of  cupola  needecMor  the  production 
of  a  given  quantity  of  iron  in  a  specified  time. 

First,  ascertain  the  amount  of  iron  which  is  likely  to  be 
needed  at  each  cast,  and  the  length  of  time  which  can  be 
devoted  profitably  to  its  disposal;  and  supposing  that  two 
hours  is  all  that  can  be  spared  for  that  purpose,  and  that 
ten  tons  is  the  amount  which  must  be  melted,  find  in  the 
column  "  Melting  Capacity  per  hour  in  Pounds"  the  nearest 
figure  to  five  tons  per  hour,  which  is  found  to  be  10,760 
pounds  per  hour,  opposite  to  which,  in  the  column 
"  Diameter  of  Cupola's  Inside  Lining,"  will  be  found  48 
inches :  this  will  be  the  size  of  cupola  required  to  furnish 
ten  tons  of  molten  iron  in  two  hours. 

Or  suppose  that  the  heats  were  likely  to  average  six  tons, 
with  an  occasional  increase  up  to  ten,  then  it  might  not  be 
thought  wise  to  incur  the  extra  expense  consequent  on 
working  a  48-inch  cupola;  in  which  case,  by  following  the 
directions  given,  it  will  be  found  that  a  40-inch  cupola 
would  answer  the  purpose  for  6  tons,  but  would  require  an 
additional  hour's  time  for  melting  whenever  the  10-ton 
heat  came  along. 

Let  it  be  understood  that  the  quotations  in  the  table  are 
not  supposed  to  be  all  that  can  be  melted  in  the  hour  by 
some  of  the  very  excellently  equipped  cupolas  now  in  the 
market,  but  are  simply  the  amounts  which  a  common 
cupola  under  ordinary  circumstances  may  be  expected  to 
melt  in  the  time  specified. 


HEIGHT   OF   CUPOLA. 

What  is  meant  by  height  of  cupola  is  the  distance  from 
the  base  to  the  bottom  side  of  the  charging  hole. 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


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FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS. 


43 


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44  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Height  in  cupolas  is  important,  as  all  low  cupolas  lose 
a  considerable  amount  of  combustible  gas,  which  escapes 
unburnt;  whereas  when  a  sufficient  height  is  allowed  a 
large  quantity  of  this  gas  mixes  with  the  oxygen  above  and 
ignites,  thus  giving  off  heat  available  for  combustion. 

Should  it  be  required  to  know  what  height  to  make  a  50- 
inch  cupola,  find  50  inches  in  the  column  "  Diameter  of 
Cupolas,"  opposite  to  which,  in  the  column  "  Height  of 
Cupola "  from  base  to  bottom  side  of  charging  hole,  will 
be  found  14  feet,  so  that  a  50-inch  cupola  should  have  a 
height  of  14  feet. 

The  height  of  any  other  cupola  from  24  inches  to  84 
inches  diameter  may  be  found  in  the  same  manner. 


DEPTH    OF   BOTTOM    OF   CUPOLA. 

Depth  of  bottom  is  the  distance  from  the  sand  bed,  after 
it  has  been  formed  at  the  bottom  of  the  cupola,  up  to  the 
under  side  of  the  tuyeres. 

It  will  be  seen  in  the  table  (pp.  42,  43),  that  all  the 
amounts  for  fuel  are  based  upon  a  bottom  of  10  inches 
deep,  and  any  departure  from  this  depth  must  be  met  by 
a  corresponding  change  in  the  quantity  of  fuel  used  on  the 
bed  ;  more  in  proportion  as  the  depth  is  increased,  and 
less  when  it  is  made  shallower. 


AMOUNT   OF   FUEL   REQUIRED    ON   THE   BED. 

The  column,  "Amount  of  Fuel  required  on  Bed,  in 
Pounds,"  will,  I  hope,  be  found  serviceable;  it  is  based  on 
the  supposition  that  the  cupola  is  a  straight  one  all  through, 
and,  as  before  stated,  that  the  bottom  is  10  inches  deep. 
If  the  bottom  be  more,  as  in  those  of  the  Colliau  type,  then 
additional  fuel  will  be  needed. 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS.  45 

The  amounts  being  given  in  pounds,  answers  for  both 
coal  and  coke,  for,  should  coal  be  used,  it  would  reach 
about  15  inches  above  the  tuyeres;  the  same  weight  of 
coke  would  bring  it  up  to  about  22  inches  above  the 
tuyeres,  which  is  a  reliable  amount  to  stock  with. 


FIEST   CHARGE   OF   IRON. 

The  amounts  given  in  this  column  of  the  table  are  safe 
figures  to  work  upon  in  every  instance,  yet  it  will  always 
be  in  order,  after  proving  the  ability  of  the  bed  to  carry 
the  load  quoted,  to  make  a  slow  and  gradual  increase  of 
the  load  until  it  is  fully  demonstrated  just  how  much  bur- 
den the  bed  will  carry;  for,  as  before  stated,  these  figures 
represent  the  safe  load  under  ordinary  conditions,  as  to 
fuel  and  blast,  in  a  common  cupola,  and  not  what  may  be 
accomplished  when  the  most  elegant  practice  is  essayed. 

SUCCEEDING   CHARGES   OF   FUEL  AND   IRON. 

By  consulting  the  columns  relating  to  succeeding 
charges  of  fuel  and  iron,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  highest 
proportions  are  not  favored,  for  the  simple  reason  that  suc- 
cessful melting  with  any  greater  proportion  of  iron  to  fuel 
is  not  the  rule,  but,  rather,  the  exception. 

Whenever  we  see  that  iron  has  been  melted  in  prime 
condition  in  the  proportion  of  12  pounds  of  iron  to  one  of 
fuel,  we  may  reasonably  expect  that  the  talent,  material, 
and  cupola  have  all  been  up  to  the  highest  degree  of  excel- 
lence. 

DIAMETER   OF   MAIN   BLAST-PIPE. 

The  table  gives  the  diameters  of  main  blast-pipes  for  all 
cupolas  from  24  to  84  inches  diameter. 


46  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

No  part  of  the  foundry  economy  has  been  more  ne- 
glected than  this;  go  where  you  will,  there  seems  to  have 
been  blundering  in  this  particular:  especially  is  this  the 
case  in  some  old  firms  which  have  made  additions  to  their 
moulding  capacity  from  time  to  time,  necessitating  the 
erection  of  other  cupolas,  which  have  been  connected  to 
^he  old  conducting  pipe,  no  matter  whether  it  was  ade- 
quate to  the  task  of  furnishing  sufficient  blast  or  not. 
This  is  not  wise,  as  the  loss  by  friction  in  pipes  that  are 
too  small  causes  a  greater  demand  on  the  engine  and 
blower,  which,  being  pushed  to  their  extreme  limit,  in 
order  if  possible  to  maintain  a  full  head  of  blast,  causes  a 
loss  from  undue  wear  and  tear,  which  would  in  a  very 
short  time  pay  the  expense  of  a  new  and  larger  set  of 
pipes. 

But  this  is  not  all :  the  increased  capacity  of  the  pipes 
in  such  a  case  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  supply 
the  exact  quantity  of  air  for  perfect  combustion,  without 
which  we  must  look  in  vain  for  a  regular  supply  of  soft 
fluid  iron.  This  latter  want  alone  ought  to  be,  if  properly 
understood,  a  sufficient  incentive  to  make  us  look  well 
after  the  main  blast-pipe. 

The  sizes  given  opposite  each  cupola  are  of  sufficient 
area  for  all  lengths  up  to  100  feet. 

TUYERES   FOR   CUPOLA. 

It  will  be  seen  that  two  columns  are  devoted  to  the 
number  and  sizes  of  tuyeres  requisite  for  the  successful 
working  of  each  cupola;  one  gives  the  number  of  pipes  6 
inches  diameter,  and  the  other  gives  the  number  and  di- 
mensions of  rectangular  tuyeres  which  are  their  equivalent 
in  area. 

From  these  two  columns  any  other  arrangement  or  dis- 
position of  tuyeres  may  be  made,  which  shall  answer  in 
their  totality  to  the  areas  given  in  the  table. 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS. 


47 


By  referring  to  the  column,  "Number  of  Tuyeres  6 
inches  diameter/'  etc.,  it  will  be  found  that  the  60-inch 
cupola  would  require  a  little  over  13^  such  tuyeres  to  fur- 
nish a  sufficient  volume  of  blast  to  insure  successful  melt- 


Section  through  A. 
Fig.  10. 


ing,  and  opposite  to  this,  in  the  column  for  Flat  Tuyeres, 
will  be  found  that  8  flat  tuyeres  16£  inches  by  3  inches 
would  be  their  equivalent;  and  by  the  same  method  it  is 
seen  that  the  24-inch  cupola  would  need  one  and  a  half 


48  THE  IRON-FQ  UN D.ER  SUPPLEMENT. 

round   tuyeres   6   inches  diameter,  or  two  flat   ones   10^ 
inches  by  2  inches. 

When  cupolas  exceed  60  inches  in  diameter,  the  increase 
should  begin  somewhere  above  the  tuyeres,  after  the  man- 
ner shown  at  Fig.  10,  which  represents  the  lower  portion  of 
a  cupola  84  inches  diameter  above  the  tuyeres  and  60 
inches  diameter  below.  This  method  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  all  common  cupolas  above  60  inches,  because  it  is  not 
possible  to  force  the  blast  to  the  middle  of  the  stock,  effec- 
tively, at  any  greater  diameter. 

On  no  consideration  must  the  tuyere  area  be  reduced ; 
this  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  an  84-inch  cupola,  and 
must,  as  is  seen  in  the  table,  have  tuyere  area  equal  to  31 
pipes  6  inches  diameter,  or  16  flat  tuyeres  16  inches  by  3| 
inches. 

If  it  is  found  that  the  given  number  of  flat  tuyeres  ex- 
ceed in  circumference  that  of  the  diminished  part  of  the 
cupola,  they  can  be  shortened,  allowing  the  decreased 
length  to  be  added  to  the  depth,  or  they  may  be  built  in 
on  end,  as  seen  in  Fig.  10;  by  so  doing  we  arrive  at  a  modi- 
fied form  of  the  famous  Blakeney  cupola. 

Various  methods  have  been  adopted  to  overcome  the 
difficulty  of  reaching  the  middle  of  the  furnace  with  a 
sufficient  volume  of  blast  to  insure  perfect  combustion 
amongst  others,  in  particular,  we  notice  the  Mackenzie  c. 
pola,  which,  they  claim,  differs  from  all  others  in  having  . 
continuous  tuyere  that  allows  the  blast  to  enter  the  fuel 
at  all  points.  This  construction,  they  further  claim,  brings 
the  blast  to  the  centre  of  the  furnace  with  the  least  pos- 
sible resistance  and  the  smallest  amount  of  power.  The 
method  of  introducing  the  blast  into  the  Makenzie  cupola 
is  illustrated  at  Fig.  11. 

Another  highly  important  point  in  this  connection  is  to 
arrange  the  tuyeres  in  such  a  manner  as  will  concentrate 
the  fire  at  the  melting-point  into  the  smallest  possible 


49 


space  to 
ce  of  the 


compass,  so 
traverse  while 
blast. 

To  accomplish  this,  recouTyu  MS  been  had  to  the  plac- 
ing of  additional  rows  of  tuyeres  in  some  instances — the 
'Stewart  rapid  cupola7  having  three  rows,  and  notably 


Fig.  II. 


Fig.  12. 


the  'Colliau  cupola  furnace/  which    has    two    rows  of 
tuyeres. 

The  patentees  of  the  Colliau  claim  that  their  records 
show  the  most  economy  in  fuel  and  iron,  the  greatest 
rapidity  in  fusion,  and  the  largest  amount  of  iron  melted 
in  a  given  time  and  size,  as  well  as  the  greatest  quantity  of 
iron  melted  in  a  cupola  without  clogging. 


50  THE  IRONFOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

It  will  be  seen  by  consulting  Fig.  12,  which  is  a  represen- 
tation of  a  Colliau  cupola,  that  it  is  in  all  respects,  except 
the  tuyeres,  a  common  cupola;  therefore,  whatever  its 
superiority  over  other  common  ones  may  be,  all  the  credit 
is  due  to  the  ingenious  disposition  of  the  tuyeres. 

BLAST-PRESSURE. 

Accurate  experiments  made  by  experts  in  this  branch  of 
science  prove  beyond  doubt  that  about  30,000  cubic  feet 
of  air  are  consumed  in  melting  a  ton  of  iron,  which,  if 
reduced  to  a  solid,  would  weigh  about  2400  pounds,  or 
more  than  both  iron  and  fuel.  In  reference  to  this  im- 
portant subject  an  authority  says :  "  When  the  proper 
quantity  of  air  is  supplied,  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  is 
perfect,  and  carbonic-acid  gas  is  the  result.  When  the 
supply  of  air  is  insufficient,  the  combustion  is  imperfect, 
and  carbonic  oxide-gas  is  the  result.  The  amount  of  heat 
evolved  in  these  two  cases  is  as  fifteen  to  four  and  a  half 
(15  :  4|),  showing  a  loss  of  over  two  thirds  of  the  heat  by 
imperfect  combustion.  Though  the  difference  between 
perfect  and  imperfect  combustion  is  so  astonishing,  it  is 
seldom  taken  into  account  by  foundrymen,  and  most  of 
them  are  unconsciously  submitting  to  a  great  loss,  which 
can  be  easily  remedied." 

It  is  not  always  true  that  we  obtain  the  most  rapid  melt- 
ing when  we  are  forcing  into  the  cupola  the  largest  quantity 
of  air.  Some  time  is  required,  says  the  authority  previously 
quoted,  to  elevate  the  temperature  of  the  air  supplied  to 
the  point  that  it  will  enter  into  combustion.  If  more  air 
than  this  is  supplied,  it  rapidly  absorbs  heat,  reduces  the 
temperature,  and  retards  combustion,  and  the  fire  in  the 
cupola  may  be  extinguished  with  too  much  blast,  as  the 
flame  of  the  lamp  is  blown  out  with  the  breath. 

When  all  these  conditions  are  well  understood  by  the 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS.  51 

student  in  cupola  practice,  he  will  then  realize  how  im- 
portant it  is  that  the  requisite  amount  of  pressure,  and  no 
more,  be  maintained  during  the  whole  process  of  melting. 

In  the  table  will  be  found  a  column,  Blast  Pressure 
Required,  in  Ounces,  which  gives  the  amount  of  pressure 
required  for  each-sized  cupola. 


BLOWERS   AND   ENGINES. 

The  blowers  chosen  as  standards  for  this  table  are  the 
Root  and  Sturtevant;  should  any  other  be  used,  it  is  im- 
portant that  their  capacity  be  measured,  so  that  any  differ- 
ence may  be  noted,  and  due  allowance  made. 

Should  it  be  required  to  know  what  size  of  Root  blower 
would  be  mos.;t  suitable  for  supplying  blast  to  a  42-inch 
cupola,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a  No.  3,  opposite  to  which 
number  is  6  horse-power,  being  the  power  of  engine 
needed  for  a  No.  3  Root  blower;  and  by  the  same  method, 
if  for  the  same-sized  cupola  a  Sturtevant  blower  was  de- 
sired, the  number  of  blower  will  be  a  No.  5,  but  the  engine 
is  5^  horse-power.  Bo  sure  that  the  engine  is  of  sufficient 
power  to  insure  a  full  or  maximum  blast,  and  if  possible 
have  it  free  from  any  other  machinery. 


TOTAL   MELTING    CAPACITY    OF   CUPOLAS. 

The  figures  given  in  the  column,  Total  Melting  Capacity 
of  Cupolas,  in  Pounds,  are  not  meant  as  absolute  (to  do 
that  would  be  impossible;  the  melting  capacity  of  any 
cupola  is  influenced,  for  good  or  bad,  by  the  amount  of 
intelligence  which  is  brought  to  bear  upon  its  manage- 
ment) ;  they  are  approximate  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
and  will  be  of  assistance  in  selecting  a  suitable  cupola  for 
the  work  in  hand. 


52  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


SLAG   IN   CUPOLAS. 

A  certain  amount  of  slag  is  necessary  to  protect  the 
molten  iron  which  has  fallen  to  the  bottom  from  the 
action  of  the  blast:  if  it  was  not  there,  the  iron  would 
suffer  from  decarbouization,  and  would  consequently  be 
less  fluid. 

When  slag  from  any  cause  forms  in  too  great  abundance, 
it  should  be  led  away  by  inserting  a  hole  a  little  below  the 
tuyeres,  through  which  it  will  find  its  way  as  the  iron  rises 
in  the  bottom. 

In  the  event  of  clean  iron  and  fuel,  slag  seldom  forms 
to  any  appreciable  extent  in  small  heats;  this  renders  any 
preparation  for  its  withdrawal  unnecessary,  but  when  the 
cupola  is  to  be  taxed  to  its  utmost  capacity  it  is  then  in- 
cumbent on  the  melter  to  flux  the  charges  all  through  the 
heat,  carrying  the  slag  away  in  the  manner  directed. 

The  best  flux  for  this  purpose  is  the  chips  from  a  white 
marble  yard;  this  is  a  much  purer  limestone  than  any 
other  of  the  carbonates,  and  requires  less  melting.  About 
6  pounds  to  the  ton  of  iron  will  give  good  results  when  all 
is  clean,, as  it  suffices  to  keep  the  cupola  open  during  a 
long  heat  without  flooding  at  the  tap-hole,  at  the  same 
time  it  softens  the  cinder,  and  makes  it  much  easier  to 
chip  out  afterwards. 

When  fuel  is  bad,  or  iron  is  dirty,  or  both  together,  it 
becomes  imperative  that  the  slag  be  kept  running  all  the 
time,  otherwise  the  cupola  will  clog  up  gradually,  and 
become  useless  before  half  its  work  is  completed. 

FUEL   FOE   CUPOLAS. 

Without  doubt,  the  best  fuel  for  melting  iron  is  coke, 
simply  because  it  requires  less  blast,  makes  hotter  iron, 
and  melts  faster  than  coal.  When  coal  must  be  used,  care 


FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS.  53 

should  be  exercised  in  its  selection.  All  anthracites  which 
are  bright,  black,  hard,  aud  free  from  slate  will  melt  iron 
admirably.  The  size  of  the  coal  used  affects  the  melting 
to  an  appreciable  extent,  and  for  the  best  results  small 
cupolas  should  be  charged  with  the  size  called  '  egg,'  a 
still  larger  grade  for  medium-sized  cupolas,  and  what  is 
called  '  lump '  will  answer  for  all  large  cupolas  when  care 
is  taken  to  pack  it  carefully  on  the  charges. 

LINING   AND   KEPAIRING   CUPOLAS. 

For  many  years  I  have  demonstrated  the  fact  that  the 
best  man  to  line  or  build  up  a  cupola  is  an  intelligent 
cupola-man,  who  will  see  to  it  that  every  brick  is  rubbed 
well  down  on  its  fellow;  also,  that  it  fits  the  shell  as  close 
as  it  is  possible  to  make  it. 

For  best  results  the  mortar  should  be  as  near  as  possible 
of  the  same  nature  as  the  bricks.  When  requested  to  do 
so,  the  dealers  can  always  supply  the  right  article.  Any 
attempt  to  make  this  mortar  from  the  clays  and  sands  in 
ordinary  use  should  be  scouted,  as  the  bricks  soon  become 
loose  if  inferior  clay  is  used  in  their  setting,  and  this 
brings  about  an  early  collapse  of  the  whole  structure. 

Too  little  attention  is  usually  paid  to  the  nature  of  the 
materials  supplied  the  melter  for  repairs;  hence  a  new- 
lined  cupola,  which  ought  to  last  from  one  to  two  years,  is 
used  up  in  half  the  time,  and  sometimes  less.  If  the  best 
silicious  sand  and  the  most  refractory  fire-clay  was  used  for 
this  purpose,  there  would  be  a  great  saving  effected  in  the 
course  of  a  year. 

A  good  melter  will  note  the  form  of  the  inside  of  his 
cupola  when  it  has  been  newly  lined,  and  endeavor  by 
careful  mending  every  morning  to  maintain  the  original 
shape.  If  he  finds  it  is  wearing  fast  at  the  melting  part, 
he  will  not  endeavor  to  preventthat  by  pressing  into  the 


54  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

cavity  Lirge  quantities  of  wet  clay,  for  he  knows  that  by 
so  doing  it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  whole  patch  would 
fall  away  as  scon  as  the  great  heat  to  which  it  is  subjected 
conies  upon  it. 

If  it  is  found  that  the  bricks  are  wearing  fast  at  that 
part,  the  right  course  to  pursue  is  to  rub  well  on  a  thin 
coat  of  daubing  each  day,  until  it  is  thought  advisable  to 
chip  out  a  course  or  two  at  the  bad  spot,  and  make  good 
with  new  bricks. 


CHARGING   THE   CUPOLA. 

As  the  table  serves  the  purpose  of  explaining,  approxi- 
mately, the  amounts  of  fuel  and  iron  to  be  charged  on  the 
various-sized  cupolas,  it  only  remains  to  be  said  that,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  best  results  at  the  cupola,  choice  must 
be  made  of  the  most  intelligent  of  the  unskilled  help 
in  the  foundry  from  which  to  train  a  skilful  melter. 

Let  him  be  taught  the  importance  of  strict  observation, 
taking  care  to  duly  mark  every  change  in  the  operations  of 
melting,  and  make  note  of  the  results;  and  whilst  it  will 
always  be  his  pleasure  to  do  as  his  foreman  instructs,  he 
must  cultivate  a  spirit  of  self-reliance,  which  every  day's 
experience  will  serve  to  strengthen  and  solidify. 

The  pleasure  of  having  a  rnelter  who  can  be  trusted  to 
do  as  he  is  instructed,  and  who  can  also  be  depended  upon 
for  the  intelligent  performance  of  all  the  details  connected 
with  the  successful  management  of  cupolas,  is  known  to 
no  one  better  than  the  writer  of  these  pages. 


REVERBERATORY  OR  AIR  FURNACES,  55 


REVERBERATORY  OR  AIR  FURNACES. 

TKEIH    USE    FOR    THE    PURPOSE    OF    MELTING    CAST   IRON 
FULLY   EXPLAINED. 

REVERBERATORY,  or,  as  they  are  more  frequently  called, 
*  wind  or  air  furnaces/  to  distinguish  them  from  those 
worked  with  compressed  air  or  blast,  are  not  as  commonly 
used  for  general  purposes  now  as  they  were  formerly,  for 
manifest  reasons,  some  of  which  it  would  perhaps  be  well 
to  inquire  into. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  claimed  that  they  are  too  expensive 
in  their  working,  requiring,  as  they  do,  more  than  twice  the 
amount  of  fuel  that  is  needed  in  the  cupola  for  the  produc- 
tion of  good  hot  iron;  but  an  extensive  practice  has  con- 
vinced me  that  even  such  considerations  would  have  been 
overlooked  on  particular  occasions  if  there  had  been  a  good 
reverberatory  furnace  in  the  shop. 

Too  frequently  castings  are  needed  which,  if  common 
justice  were  done  to  all  parties  concerned,  ought  to  have 
been  cast  from  the  reverberatory  furnace;  and  in  the  some- 
times oft-repeated  effort  to  produce  iron  of  the  desired 
homogeneousness  in  the  cupola  the  cost  of  production  in 
the  end  has  been  very  far  in  excess  of  what  it  would  have 
been  had  the  proper  furnace  for  the  job  been  on  hand. 

Another  of  the  prime  causes  for  this  discontinuance  is 
the  great  lack  of  knowledge  manifested  in  their  construction 
and  management,  owing  to  which,  failures  have  attended 
the  efforts  of  quite  a  number  of  founders  who  have  endeav- 
ored to  establish  their  use,  and  they  have  been  forced  to 
abandon  the  enterprise  and  fall  back  disappointed  to  the 
cupola  again. 


56  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

This  should  not  be  the  case,  nor  need  there  be  any  such 
giving  up:  the  business  can  be  learned,  like  any  other,  by 
hard  application  and  industry;  and  no  better  incentive  to 
this  could  be  adduced  than  to  inform  all  such  as  have  failed 
in  learning  the  art,  that  throughout  the  whole  of  Europe 
the  reverberatory  is  as  common  as  the  cupola  furnace  is 
here. 

Do  not  understand  me  as  urging  their  general  adoplion 
in  place  of  the  cupola:  in  view  of  the  latter's  great  utility 
such  a  proposition  would  be  preposterous  in  the  extreme. 
But  I  do  maintain  that  if  they  were  built  and  held  in  readi- 
ness for  emergencies,  which  are  constantly  occurring,  it 
would  reveal  a  greater  wisdom  on  the  part  of  our  leading 
founders. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  reverberatory  furnace  will 
yield  a  purer  metal  than  is  possible  for  the  cupola  to  do, 
simply  because  it  is  melted  separate  from  the  fuel,  and 
consequently  cannot  absorb  its  impurities;  whilst,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  iron  in  the  cupola  is  charged  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  fuel,  with  the  consequent  resalt  of  being  more 
or  less  impregnated  with  its  impurities.  This  fact  is  incon- 
trovertible, and  speaks  volumes  in  favor  of  the  reverberatory, 
when  absolutely  clean  iron  is  the  desideratum. 

Iron  melted  in  the  reverberatory  furnace  loses  a  portion 
of  its  oxygen  during  the  process.  This  tends  to  harden 
by  converting  graphitic  into  combined  carbon;  hence  the 
eminent  adaptability  of  these  furnaces  for  the  production 
of  iron  suitable  for  guns,  hydraulic  cylinders,  rams,  heavy 
rolls,  etc.,  as  any  degree  of  homogeneousness  can  be  obtained 
by  polling  the  molten  iron  in  the  reservoir  after  it  has  all 
melted,  and  at  the  same  time  allowing  the  full  force  of  the 
flame  to  play  upon  its  surface  until  the  iron,  by  dipping 
test,  shows  the  desired  texture. 

One  great  advantage  claimed  by  the  workers  in  malleable 
iron  is,  that  iron  melted  in  the  reverberatory  furnace  an- 


REVERBERATORY  OR  AIR  FURNACES.  57 

neals  at  a  heat  very  much  lower  than  would  be  required 
for  iron  melted  in  the  cupola;  this  will  in  some  measure 
compensate  for  the  extra  cost  of  melting  in  the  former. 

For  the  reduction  of  unwieldy  masses  of  scrap-iron  this 
class  of  furnace  is  indispensable,  as  any  amount  of  this 
apparent  drug  can  be  reduced  into  good  fluid  iron  with  the 
greatest  ease. 

For  the  benefit  of  all  such  as  are  ignorant  of  the  princi- 
ples which  govern  the  art  of  melting  in  these  furnaces,  it  is 
needful  to  say  that  in  all  cases  where  it  is  desired  to  melt 
metals  out  of  contact  with  the  solid  fuel,  special  combustion 
chambers  or  fireplaces  must  be  provided,  the  metal  being 
melted  by  the  body  of  flame  and  heated  gas  acting  upon  its 
surface  as  it  lays  on  the  bed  of  the  furnace. 

To  accomplish  this  effectively,  the  flame  must  be  made 
to  reverberate  from  the  low  vaulted  roof  of  the  furnace 
downwards,  and  the  form  of  the  roof  associated  with  the 
velocity  of  the  flame  will  determine  what  part  or  parts  of 
the  bed  will  receive  the  full  force  of  the  heat  current. 

This  fact  gives  rise  to  numerous  opinions  as  to  the  cor- 
rect form  to  be  given  the  inside  of  a  reverberatory  furnace 
for  obtaining  the  maximum  of  efficiency,  some  favoring 
the  method  of  placing  the  charge  behind  the  bridge  wall; 
others  again  maintain  that  the  chimney  end  is  the  best  for 
charging,  because  it  is  generally  allowed  to  be  the  hottest ; 
but  however  much,  they  may  vary  in  construction,  the  prin- 
ciples which  govern,  as  noted  above,  are  about  the  same. 

The  furnace  represented  by  the  illustrations  accompany- 
ing this  article  is  a  very  good  one  for  general  work,  and 
very  suitable  for  reducing  or  melting  heavy  lumps  which 
would  otherwise  have  to  be  cut  up  into  smaller  pieces  before 
it  would  be  practicable  to  melt  them  in  the  cupola. 

The  chief  points  in  the  representations  have  their  dimen- 
sions figured ;  this  will  aid  in  arriving  at  a  correct  estimate 
of  the  proportions  of  the  furnace  shown.  Its  outside  di- 


68  THE  IRON-POUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

mensions,  exclusive  of  plates,  are  30  feet  6  inches  long  and 
7  feet  wide.  The  whole  structure  is  incased  in  wrought- 
iron  plates  joined  together,  as  shown  in  plan,  Fig.  13,  and 
again  by  broken  lines  at  Fig.  16. 

The  corners  are  held  together  with  angle-irons,  and  the 
principal  anchors  are  those  shown  at  Fig.  1G,  and  marked 
from  1  to  8,  respectively.  These  '  chief '  anchor-bolts  reach 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  passing  through  the  structure  at 
such  places  as  are  best  calculated  to  bind  the  whole  firmly 
together,  and  at  the  same  time  are  clear  of  all  working 
parts  of  the  furnace,  as  will  be  observed  by  referring  to 
Fig.  14.  where  the  position  of  each  bolt  is  shown  at  figures 
corresponding  to  those  marked  on  the  side  elevation,  Fig.  16. 

The  amount  of  strain  which  this  furnace  is  called  upon 
to  bear,  owing  to  the  intense  heat  and  pressure  to  which  it 
is  subjected  periodically,  makes  it  imperative  that  not  only 
the  walls,  but  the  foundation  also,  should  be  as  substan- 
tially built  as  possible. 

The  foundation  A,  Fig.  14,  can  be  built  up  solid  of  com- 
mon material,  up  to  the  line  of  fire-brick,  and  in  such  form 
as  will  allow  the  fire-bricks  when  set  thereon  to  incline 
from  the  chimney  to  the  reservoir  in  a  downward  direction, 
as  shown  at  Fig.  14;  and  it  will  be  seen  that  all  those  from 
B  to  C  must  be  kept  six  inches  below  what  it  is  intended 
shall  be  bottom  of  the  furnace  after  the  sand  bed  has  been 
formed  upon  it. 

The  bridge  wall  D,  Fig.  14,  must  in  this  case  be  not  less 
than  2  feet  3  inches  from  the  face  of  the  grate-bars,  and, 
like  the  sides,  roof,  and  fireplace,  must  be  built  with  the 
most  refractory  kind  of  fire-bricks. 

The  fireplace  must  in  all  cases  be  built  the  full  width  of 
the  furnace,  to  commence  with:  should  it  be  thought  desir- 
able to  contract  its  dimensions  subsequently,  the  task  will 
be  an  easy  one. 

The  roof  throughout  its  entire  length  is  an  arched  one, 


REVERBERATORY  OR  AIR  FURNACES. 


69 


60  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

and,  as  before  stated,  must  be  of  fire-brick;  whatever  fill- 
ing is  done  above  the  fire-brick  arches  can  be  of  commoner 
material. 

The  chimney  for  such  a  furnace  would  need  to  be  from 
30  to  40  feet  in  height,  surmounted  with  a  damper,  so 
arranged  as  to  be  easily  controlled  from  the  bottom ;  this  is 
an  important  feature,  as  the  draught  is  regulated  altogether 
by  the  damper.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  a  chim- 
ney of  this  sort  must  be  built  with  an  inside  course  of  fire- 
bricks, and  no  matter  what  form  the  outlet  from  the  furnace 
may  be,  it  is  best  to  build  the  chimney  square. 

The  methods  adopted  for  binding  these  chimneys  are 
various,  but  as  they  are  well  understood  by  all  masons  ac- 
customed to  this  class  of  work,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  describe  them  here.  As  to  their  dimensions,  it  is  a  com- 
mon rule  to  have  the  inside  area  equal  that  of  the  air-space 
in  the  grate,  but  these  things  can  only  be  determined  by 
actual  experience  and  practice.  I  have  seen  good  melting 
done  in  reverberatory  furnaces  whose  chimneys  in  some 
instances  were  much  smaller  than  the  rule  allows;  and 
again  in  other  instances,  when  the  chimney's  area  has 
been  in  excess  of  the  air-space  in  the  grate,  the  melting 
has  been  all  that  could  be  desired.  I  therefore  conclude 
that  it  would  be  the  wisest  in  all  cases  to  have  the  area  of 
the  chimney  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  fireplace,  as  in  any 
case  the  damper  will  regulate  the  draught  with  certainty 
when  the  height  is  sufficient. 

A  very  excellent  mode  of  building  chimneys  is  to  have 
them  as  a  separate  structure,  resting  on  a  sole-plate  sup- 
ported by  four  columns;  this  gives  opportunity  for  making 
a  connection  with  the  furnace  or  furnaces  from  any  direc- 
tion which  may  be  chosen. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  charging-doors  shown  :  the  one  at 
A,  Fig.  16,  is  on  the  side,  and  covers  a  hole  5  feet  by  4  feet, 
through  which  the  iron,  heavy  and  light,  is  conveyed  when 


REVERBERATORY  OR  AIR  FURNACES.  61 


62  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  charging  is  all  done  from  the  side  aperture;  the  other 
is  seen  on  the  top  of  the  furnace  at  A,  Fig.  15,  and  covers  a 
hole  as  wide  as  the  furnace,  G  feet  in  length. 

In  all  cases  when  the  iron  to  be  charged  is  heavy  the 
latter  method  is  the  most  convenient.  As  seen,  the  doors 
are  lined  with  fire-bricks. 

The  manner  of  building  a  furnace  here  shown  admits  of 
easy  access  to  any  part  for  repairs,  for  as  all  the  connections 
are  made  with  bolts  (not  rivets)  one  or  more  of  the  plates 
can  be  detached  at  the  place  where  it  is  needed  for  making 
alterations  or  repairs. 

Fuel  is  the  all-important  factor  for  producing  hot  iron  in 
re verberatory  furnaces,  as  it  is  also  in  cupolas;  and  although 
numerous  tests  have  been  made  with  coke,  hard  coal,  an- 
thracite, and  charcoal,  none  seem  to  work  so  well  as  the 
soft  bituminous  coal  of  the  non-caking  kind :  it  is  the  only 
fuel  upon  which  the  utmost  confidence  can  be  placed. 

The  importance  of  a  good  draught  in  these  furnaces  will 
suggest  itself  to  the  least  observant,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  this  draught  will  draw  cold  as  well  as  hot  air 
through  the  stock  if  there  are  openings  left  at  any  point 
for  its  ingress.  This  bad  feature  is  to  be  avoided  by  all  pos- 
sible means  and  this  can  only  be  done  by  incessant  watching 
of  the  fire,  always  endeavoring  to  keep  a  full  grate  of  live 
coal,  and  when  clinkering  must  be  done,  let  it  be  done 
quickly  and  well,  and  avoid  making  holes  in  the  fire, 
through  which  cold  air  can  rush  into  the  furnace. 

The  inrush  of  cold  air  is  to  be  strictlv  guarded  against 
from  whatever  cause;  for,  independent  of  the  dangerous 
tendency  towards  chilling  the  furnace,  there  is  a  possibility 
of  the  chemical  nature  of  the  iron  being  changed  by  its 
admission. 

When  the  draught  is  strong  enough  to  force  the  flame 
with  a  velocity  sufficient  to  melt  the  iron  quickly  and  hot, 
it  need  not  be  urged  any  more. 


REVERBERATOR?  OR  AIR  FURNACES. 


63 


By  referring  to  Fig.  14  it  will  be  seen  just  how  much 
of  the  bottom  needs  to  be  made  up  with  sand  ;  it  starts  on 
the  bed  at  B,  and  continues  down  and  around  the  reservoir 
to  (7.  If  this  bottom  be  well  made  with  a  preparation 
composed  of  eight  parts  fire-sand,  and  one  each  of  clay 
and  ground  coke,  it  should  last  for  ten  heats,  providing 
it  receives  from  one  to  two  hours'  good  firing  before  the 
first  charge  is  piled  in. 

The  breast  seen  at  A,  Fig.  13,  E,  Fig.  14,  and  B,  Fig.  15, 
can  be  made  after  the  manner  suitable  for  a  large  cupola, 
but  as  the  hole  must  be  stopped  until  the  tap  is  made,  pains 


Fig.  15. 

must  be  taken  to  fill  the  cavity  all  through  its  length  with 
fire-sand  mixed  with  a  small  portion  of  coal-dust;  this  can 
be  easily  withdrawn,  as  it  will  not  cake  together  when  it 
becomes  hot.  Before  tapping  be  sure  and  close  the  damper. 
For  charging  purposes  it  is  advisable  to  allow  plenty  of 
room  at  the  doorways:  especially  is  this  the  case  when  all 
must  be  charged  through  the  side.  The  first  layer  of  pigs 
must  be  set  lengthwise  with  the  furnace,  a  little  apart,  the 
following  layers  in  opposite  direction,  but  leaving  spaces 
between  each  pig  for  the  free  passage  of  the  flame  j  in  fact, 


64  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

open  charging  is  to  be  observed,  no  matter  of  what  nature 
the  pig  or  scrap  may  be. 

When  the  pieces  to  be  melted  are  of  more  than  ordinary 
magnitude,  it  is  then  in  order  to  have  an  open  top  through 
which  to  lower  them  down  with  the  crane;  the  cover  for 
such  an  opening  is  shown  in  end  section  at  A,  Fig.  15,  being 
simply  a  segment  of  the  circle  corresponding  to  the  arch  of 
the  roof  at  that  point,  with  internal  flanges  for  carrying  a 
course  of  fire-bricks  built  in  on  end ;  the  rings  C  and  D 
are  for  lifting  the  cover  on  and  off  with  the  crane. 

The  object  shown  as  resting  on  the  bottom  represents 
a  U.  S.  13-inch  mortar,  weighing  about  17,000  pounds. 
Preparation  is  made  to  sustain  this  weight  clear  of  the  bed, 
by  setting  fire-bricks  on  the  bottom,  to  finish  level  with  the 
bed  when  it  is  formed,  on  which  to  rest  other  blocks  for 
carrying  the  load;  by  this  means  the  flame  can  play  all 
around  the  piece,  and  a  speedy  reduction  of  the  mass  en- 
sues, if  all  is  working  right. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  considerable  space  behind  remains 
unoccupied,  all  of  which  can  be  utilized  if  more  iron  than 
is  contained  in  the  mortar  be  needed;  for,  as  before  stated, 
this  is  the  hottest  part  of  the  furnace. 

All  the  iron  required  should  be  charged  at  the  first,  as  it 
is  not  advisable  to  attempt  the  reduction  of  any  additional 
stock  immediately  after  the  heat  is  down.  Such  attempts 
are  attended  with  disaster  oftener  than  otherwise,  because 
the  furnace  cools  off  considerably  by  the  admission  of  cold 
iron  and  cold  air,  making  it  next  to  impossible  to  melt  the 
second  charge  before  the  iron  first  melted  becomes  cold  and 
useless. 

The  hole  shown  at  J5,  Fig.  13,  and  at  H,  Fig.  14,  is  the 
puddling-hole,  and,  as  will  be  noticed,  is  directly  over  the 
reservoir.  It  is  through  this  hole  that  the  dipping  is  done 
for  testing  purposes;  the  skimming  is  effected  through  this 
hole  also.  It  is  very  important  that  the  molten  iron  be  kept 


EEVERBERATORT  OR  AIR  FURNACES.  65 


66 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


clean,  as  any  accumulation  of  dirt  or  scum  upon  its  surface 
acts  like  a  shield,  and  interferes  with  the  direct  action  of 
the  flame  upon  its  surface ;  this,  of  course,  is  as  good  as  so 
much  heat  lost. 

Another  very  important  operation  which  is  readily  accom- 
plished by  means  of  the  puddlirig-hole  is  the  boiling  of  the 
metal,  a  process  which  becomes  absolutely  necessary  when 
opposite  grades  of  iron  are  to  be  mixed  together,  out  of 
which  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  thorough  blending  of  the 


Fig.  17. 


American  Machinixt 


whole:  this  is  done  by  thrusting  down  into  the  molten  iron 
one  or  more  green  saplings.  This,  of  course,  creates  a  vio- 
lent ebullition  throughout  the  mass,  and  usually  effects  the 
desired  result;  but  this,  as  well  as  the  other  operations, 
must  be  done  with  the  utmost  dispatch,  otherwise  cold  air 
will  rush  into  the  furnace  in  sufficient  quantity  to  neutral- 
ize every  good  effect  which  should  accrue  from  these  several 
important  agencies. 


CASTINGS  OF  ONE  HUNDRED   TONS.  67 

Another  hole  is  seen  at  /,  Fig.  14,  which  enables  the 
melter  to  take  an  occasional  glimpse  into  the  interior  of  the 
furnace,  and  being  directly  in  range  with  the  bed,  he  can  ma- 
terially accelerate  the  process  of  melting  by  separating  such 
pieces  as  are  welding  together,  as  also  by  breaking  up  the 
more  refractory  ones :  this  hastens  melting  by  increasing 
the  surface  upon  which  the  flame  can  more  effectually  play. 

The  old  saying  that  '  a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine '  applies 
with  more  than  ordinary  force  to  the  management  of  these 
furnaces.  A  careful  examination  after  each  heat  will  reveal 
small  and  apparently  insignificant  faults.  If  these  are  at 
once  remedied,  these  furnaces  will  not  only  last  longer  in 
good  condition,  but,  as  a  natural  consequence  of  their  supe- 
rior efficiency,  will  also  melt  hotter  and  better  iron.  Fig. 
17  shows  end  view  of  furnace,  opposite  end  to  the  chimney. 


CASTING  ONE  HUNDRED  TONS  OF  CAST  IRON. 

SHOWING  THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  USE  OF  THE  NECES- 
SARY EQUIPMENT  FOR  POURING  HEAVY  CASTINGS; 
EAMS,  RECEIVERS,  AIR-FURNACES,  LADLES,  WITH 
TABLE  OF  CAPACITY  OF  ;  RUNNERS,  ETC. 

CASTINGS  weighing  100  tons  and  over  are  not  made 
every  day  ;  consequently  there  are  very  few  foundries  that 
may  be  considered  as  permanently  equipped  for  such  a 
task. 

Strange  as  it  may  appear,  whenever  a  casting  of  such 
magnitude  is  needed  it  is  almost  invariably  made  where 
the  facilities  for  producing  work  of  that  description  arc 
far  below  the  average. 

One  reason  for  this  is  that,  on  account  of  their  ex- 
traordinary bulk,  such  pieces  are  difficult  to  handle  and 


68  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

ship;  it  becomes,  therefore,  very  prudent  to  cast  them  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  place  for  which  they  are  intended. 

I  have  in  my  mind  a  casting  that  weighed  185  tons:  it 
was  required  for  a  steel- works,  and  was  made  in  a  foundry 
close  by,  with  no  facilities  whatever  for  casting  a  piece  of 
such  massive  proportions.  Special  cupolas  of  large  capac- 
ity were  erected  for  the  production  of  the  molten  iron, 
and  taken  down  again  when  the  casting  was  completed. 

But  there  are  other  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  founder 
who  may  have  been  requested  to  produce  this  class  of 
work,  foremost  of  which  is  the  fact  that  the  ability  of  his 
workmen  is  not  up  to  the  standard  of  excellence  that  will 
warrant  him  in  undertaking  such  jobs  indiscriminately. 
He  knows  that  to  successfully  melt  and  care  for  so  large 
a  quantity  of  molten  iron  something  more  than  theoretic 
knowledge  is  required:  there  must  be  judgment,  founded 
upon  a  wide  experience  in  such  matters,  to  insure  success 
in  all  the  various  details  connected  with  the  process  ;  and 
he  well  knows  that  failure  in  any  one  of  these  details  in- 
volves the  loss  of  all. 

If  a  casting  requiring  100  tons  of  iron  was  ordered  at  a 
foundry  where  the  facilities  for  melting  were  adequate  to 
the  task,  and  where  they  were  provided  with  cranes,  suit- 
ably located  and  of  the  requisite  power  for  handling  the 
whole  amount  in  four  ladles  holding  25  tons  each,  the 
matter  is  then  simple  enough;  but  foundries  with  such 
ample  facilities  are  few  in  number,  and  we  must  therefore 
continue  to  devise  schemes  that  will  accomplish  the  de- 
sired end  without  the  aid  of  such  extraordinary  helps. 

One  chief  help  in  accomplishing  such  a  job  in  an  or- 
dinary foundry,  and  which  might  with  profit  be  more 
generally  adopted,  is  the  dam,  temporarily  or  permanently 
constructed,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  therein  a  larger 
quantity  of  molten  iron  than  could  possibly  be  handled  in 
ladles. 


CASTINGS  OF  ONE  HUNDRED   TONS.  69 

The  reservoir  of  the  reverberatory  furnace  can  be  util- 
ized as  a  dam  also,  by  enlarging  its  dimensions  for  special 
occasions,  and  always  insures  a  supply  of  good  hot  iron 
proportionate  to  its  capacity.  This  cannot  be  as  confidently 
said  of  the  dam  erected  on  the  foundry  floor,  because  the 
condition  of  the  iron  in  the  latter  will  depend  upon  the 
length  of  time  taken  to  melt  the  whole  quantity,  as  well  as 
its  temperature  when  tapped  or  poured  therein. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  the  use  of  the  dam  will  enable 
a  very  small  foundry,  with  limited  crane  accommodations, 
to  turn  out  some  comparatively  heavy  work  in  a  manner 
truly  astonishing  to  those  unaccustomed  to  their  use. 

In  order  to  show  the  entire  details  connected  with  a 
cast  of  100  tons,  and  to  make  plain  the  method  by  which 
this  may  with  safety  be  accomplished  in  an  ordinarily 
heavy  workshop,  I  have  made  at  Fig.  18  a  rude  sketch 
of  that  portion  of  the  foundry  which  is  occupied  by  the 
mould  to  be  poured,  as  well  as  the  arrangement  of  the 
means  for  pouring. 

The  mould,  as  will  be  seen,  is  round  ;  and  as  the  object 
of  this  writing  is  to  explain  the  method  of  pouring  only, 
none  of  the  necessary  appendages  for  building  such  a  mould 
are  shown,  as  they  would  have  interfered  too  much  with 
the  direct  view  of  the  whole  system  to  be  explained. 

Behind  the  wall,  at  A,  is  supposed  to  be  a  reverberatory 
furnace  capable  of  holding  20  tens;  and  again  behind 
the  side  wall,  at  B,  are  two  cupolas,  each  of  which  melts 
8  tons  per  hour:  this  would  yield  48  tons  in  three  hours, 
and  is  the  amount  required  to  fill  the  dam  shown  at  (7. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  iron  must  be  allowed 
to  collect  in  the  cupolas  before  they  are  tapped  into  the 
dam,  and  that  the  greatest  effort  be  made  to  melt  the 
hottest  iron  possible.  The  above  is  supplemented  by  the 
two  crane  ladles  D  and  E9  each  holding  1C  tons.  For  the 


70 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


S 
t 


CASTINGS  OF  ONE  HUNDRED   TONS.  71 

reasons  previously   explained,   the    bare   shells   only   are 
shown. 

This  brings  the  total  up  to  100  tons  of  molten  iron, 
which,  if  rightly  managed,  may  be  rim  into  the  mould  with 
a  dispatch  that,  to  the  uninitiated,  appears  marvellous. 

The  ladle  E,  as  well  as  furnace  and  dam,  connect 
directly  with  the  main  runner  F,  but  the  ladle  D  is  sup- 
posed to  supply  a  supplementary  gate,  which  leads  to  the 
lowest  portions  of  the  mould,  with  the  view  of  well  cover- 
ing such  parts  before  the  iron  begins  to  drop  down  from 
the  upper  gates. 

Very  much  of  the  trouble  attending  this  method  of 
pouring  arises  from  the  inadequate  runner  space  pro- 
vided. It  is  very  important  that  all  runners  for  this  pur- 
pose should  be  capacious,  and  no  eifort  should  be  spared 
to  effect  that  object;  the  fewer  the  points  which  must  be 
watched  during  the  operation  of  pouring,  the  easier  and 
safer  will  it  be  to  conduct  such  operations. 

The  main  runner,  shown  at  F,  Fig.  18,  is  supposed  to 
be  about  14  feet  inside  diameter,  and  if  made  18  inches 
wide  by  2  feet  deep  would  hold  about  20  tons;  the  margin 
of  safety  in  such  a  runner  as  this  is  very  large,  and  that  is 
what  it  should  be  for  a  casting  of  such  magnitude. 

I  have  shown  at  Fig.  19  the  correct  form  of  runner  best 
suited  for  work  that  is  to  be  bored,  and  which  must  for 
obvious  reasons  be  dropped  from  the  top.  It  will  be  seen 
that  a  steep  grade  towards  the  inside  is  given  at  the 
bottom;  this  gives  instant  motion  to  the  molten  iron 
towards  the  runners,  covering  them  at  once,  and  thus  pre- 
venting any  possibility  of  their  '  drawing  air/ 

Runners,  spouts,  and  pouring  basins  for  these  occasions 

should  be  prepared  in  dry  sand  or  loam,  if  absolute  safety 

and  clean  work  is  aimed  for.     Figs.  20,  21  and  22  are  plan 

and  elevations  of  the  requisite   parts  for  constructing  a 

-box  in  which  to  form  the  basins,  as  seen  at   G  and  H, 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Fig.  18.  The  end  farthest  from  the  ladle  can  be  made 
open,  as  shown  at  Fig.  22 ;  by  so  doing  it  becomes  easy  to 
make  a  connection  with  any  other  system  of  running 
which  circumstances  may  necessitate. 

The  dam  seen  at  (7,  Fig.  18,  is  supposed  to  be  8  feet  3 
inches  diameter  and  4  feet  deep,  inside  measurement,  and 
will  hold  48  tons,  as  before  stated.  It  is  provided  with  a 
shutter  and  lever  for  controlling  the  flow  of  iron,  as  seen; 
but  in  order  that  a  better  understanding  of  how  to  con- 


Fig.  19. 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  22. 


struct  such  a  dam  may  be  arrived  at,  I  have  shown  the 
same  in  plan  and  sectional  elevation  at  Fig.  23. 

For  ordinary  occasions,  smaller  dams  can  be  more  tem- 
porarily constructed  and  made  up  with  old  sand,  if  extra 
care  be  taken  to  prevent  the  bottom  from  being  cut  with 
the  first  iron;  but  for  larger  jobs,  and  especially  for  such  a 
one  as  we  now  have  under  consideration,  a  strong  casing  of 
boiler-plates  bolted  together,  as  seen  at  A,  must  be  pro- 
vided, inside  of  which  the  dam  must  be  formed  by  build- 
ing loose  bricks  below  until  the  course  which  forms  the 
bottom  is  reached,  when  it  is  advisable  to  set  these  closer 


CASTINGS  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  TONS. 


73 


together  on  a  bed  of  loam  :  this  will  prevent  any  tendency 
to  leakage. 

The  shutter  shown  at  B,   Fig.  23,  may  by  some    be 
thought  too  elaborate  for  such  a  purpose,  but  if  they  will 


Fig.  23. 

call  to  mind  the  numerous  errors  which  have  been  made 
for  want  of  a  reliable  shutter,  they  will  hesitate  before 
venturing  an  adverse  criticism. 

As  seen,  the  shutter  is  a  circular  cast  plate  with  strength- 
ening ribs  across;  these  ribs  also  serve  to  hold  the  fire- 
bricks, which  must  be  built  between  them.  The  lugs 
shown  at  0  connect  with  the  lever  used  for  raising  and 


74  THE  TRON-FOVNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

lowering  the  shutter.  The  details  of  this  arrangement  are 
shown  in  plan  and  elevation  at  Fig.  24;  the  line  at  A 
representing  the  top  of  the  dam,  B  the  fixing  (secured  to 
the  tank)  which  supports  the  lever  C,  and  D  the  lugs 
which  correspond  to  those  seen  at  C,  Fig.  23. 

It  is  intended  that  the  shutter  shall  be  set  in  position 
with  the  G-iuch  plug  D,  set  behind  when  the  wall  is  built 
and  if  proper  provision  is  made  it  can  be  taken  out  (to 
facilitate  drying)  after  the  wall  has  been  loamed  over. 
When  the  shutter  has  been  built  around  in  the  manner 
described,  there  remains  little  to  be  done  in  the  way  of 
fitting;  after  it  has  been  bricked  and  loamed  on  the 
inside,  let  it  be  thoroughly  dried  and  set  back  in  its 
original  position. 

The  round  side  being  clean,  there  is  very  little  friction; 
consequently  it  answers  readily  to  the  pressure  of  the 
lever,  and  enables  the  assistant  to  regulate  the  stream  at 
will. 

By  an  arrangement  such  as  described  above  the  hole 
may  be  made  very  large  with  safety:  this, of  course,  leaves 
nothing  to  chance,  as  any  degree  of  speed  in  pouring  may 
be  obtained  by  simply  raising  or  lowering  the  shutter. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  all  such  dams  as  these  must  be 
thoroughly  dried,  and  as  near  red-hot  as  possible  when  the 
first  tap  is  made  into  them.  As  soon  as  the  tap  has  been 
made,  it  is  well  to  cover  the  surface  of  the  iron  with  char- 
coal, the  pieces  of  which  are  from  2  to  3  inches  diameter, 
then  fill  the  interstices  with  a  finer  sort,  taking  care  that 
no  open  spots  are  left.  As  an  extra  precaution,  cover  the 
whole  dam  over  the  top  with  sheet-iron  plates;  by  this 
means  the  iron  can  be  kepi  in  a  good  fluid  condition  for  a 
very  long  time,  providing  it  was  hot  from  the  start. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  top  of  the  runner  is  2  feet 
above  the  floor:  this,  of  course,  means  that  the  bottom  of 
the  dam  must  be  as  much  above  that  level  as  will  allow  a 


CASTINGS  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  TONS. 


75 


gradual  and  easy  descent  in  the  direction  of  the  runner; 
also,  if  the  great  advantage  of  having  the  cupolas  tapped 


directly  into  the  dam  be  desired,  their  bottoms  must  be 
slightly  higher  than  the  top  of  the  dam,  as  seen  at  Fig.  18. 
The  crane  ladles  which  would  be  required  for  this  occa- 
sion are  somewhat  larger  than  those  commonly  used,  and 


76  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  notice  some  of  the  chief  points 
which  go  towards  making  a  good  ladle. 

Figs.  25,  26  and  27  are  plans  and  elevation  of  a  16-ton 
ladle,  which,  when  lined  with  brick  and  covered  with  a  thin 
daubing  of  loam,  must  measure  54  inches  diameter  and  56 
inches  deep. 

The  gearing  is  preferably  arranged  so  that  the  operator 
may  stand  on  the  side  whilst  he  turns  the  ladle.  Two 
very  bad  features  in  many  geared  ladles  are  corrected  in 
the  one  shown;  usually  the  bearing  at  A,  Fig.  25,  is  too 


short,  in  consequence  of  which  both  bearing  and  shaft  are 
destroyed  in  quick  time:  this  one  is  12  inches  long. 

The  other  common  error  is  to  make  the  worm-wheel  B 
too  small  in  diameter:  this  makes  it  very  hard  to  work, 
besides  causing  greater  wear  and  tear  on  the  rest  of  the 
machine;  the  worm-wheel  for  this  ladle  is  3  feet  6  inches 
diameter.  By  all  means  let  all  the  parts  of  a  geared  ladle 
be  machined  in  ihe  best  way:  it  is  a  mistake  to  think  that 
anything  else  will  do. 

The  shell  is  made  of  f-inch  boiler-plate,  with  a  bottom 


CASTINGS  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  TONS.  77 

|  inch  thick,  and  the  dimensions  of  the  principal  parts  are 
as  follows:  Lifting  eye  (C),  9  inches  by  4  inches,  made 
from  3-inch  round  steel;  beam  (/>),  10  inches  deep  in  the 
middle,  2|  inches  thick;  slings  (EF],  2J  inches  diameter; 
middle  band  (<7),  8  inches  by  3  inches;  shafts  on  band 
(ff),  4  inches  diameter;  upper  and  lower  bands  (//),  6 
inches  by  1^  inches;  bottom  bands  (^T),  6  inches  by  1| 
inches;  these  latter  cross  each  other  underneath,  as  shown 
by  broken  lines  in  Fig.  25,  and  extend  upwards  to  the 
middle  band,  resting  thereon  by  a  toe  provided  for  the 
purpose,  being  further  secured  thereto  by  bolts,  as  seen 
at  Z,  Fig.  20. 

This  form  of  lifting  eye  works  more  advantageously  than 
any  other:  it  is  always  in  position  for  use,  and  the  oval 
shape  favors  rapid  handling,  and  is  not  as  liable  to  fract- 
ure as  round  eyes  arc.  Be  sure  that  i-inch  holes  are 
drilled  on  the  bottom  for  the  escape  of  steam:  this  saves 
the  bottom  from  raising  when  there  is  moisture  lurking 
there. 

The  style  of  lip  shown  at  Mis  to  be  recommended,  on 
account  of  the  favorable  stream  which  is  formed  by  it 
when  pouring.  It  is  well  known  that  if  the  pouring  is  to 
be  rapid  from  the  start,  most  ladles  at  the  beginning 
deliver  the  iron  in  a  wide  sheet,  making  it  necessary  to 
construct  very  wide  basins:  this  form  of  lip  controls  the 
steam  by  preventing  the  spreading  spoken  of,  and  makes 
the  operation  of  pouring  much  more  pleasant. 

It  may  be  well  to  state  just  here  that  this  style  of  ladle 
is  the  best  for  all  sizes  of  crane  ladles:  all  the  difference 
to  be  made  is  to  suit  the  strength  to  the  capacity.  I  have 
a  decided  objection  to  all  crane  ladles  that  are  not  geared, 
for  they  are  not  only  dangerous  tools  to  work  with,  but 
they  invariably  require  about  100  per  cent  more  help  to 
manage  them. 

It  is  wise  to  put  a  brick  lining  into  all  ladles  down  to  8 


78 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


tons,  below  which  capacity  the  bottom  can  be  safely  made 
by  laying,  first,  about  one  inch  of  fine  cinders,  over  which 
let  two  inches  of  soft  silica  sand  be  spread  very  evenly, 
and  then  rammed  down  hard.  Such  a  bottom  as  this  will 
never  fail  if  the  holes  are  kept  open  and  the  sand  be 
thoroughly  dried  before  using;  an  ev^n  daubing  of  one 
inch  will  suffice  on  the  sides. 

The  following  table  gives  the  dimensions,  inside  the 
lining,  of  ladles  from  25  pounds  to  16  tons  capacity,  and 
will  be  found  useful  to  all  who  do  not  care  to  make  the 
necessary  calculations.  It  will  be  well  to  notice  that  all 
the  ladles  are  supposed  to  be  straight  ones,  after  the  man- 
ner shown  in  the  engravings. 


Capacity. 

Diameter. 

Depth. 

16  to 
14 
12 
10 
8 
6 
4 
3 
2 
U 

f 

300  p< 
250 
200 
l.')0 
100 
75 
50 
35 
25 

ns  .   

54  inc 
52 
49 
44 

43 
39 
34 
31 
27 
•244 
22 
20 
17 
13.V 
111 
lOf 
10 
9 
8 
7 
64 
5* 
5 

lies. 

56  inc 
53 
50 
48 
44 
40 
35 
32 
23 
'•>5 
22 
20 
17 
134 

114 
11 
104 
94 

8* 

74 
64 
G 
54 

lies. 



Minds 

It  will  be  natural  to  suppose  that  the  ladles  D  and  E, 
Fig.  18,  have  to  be  filled  by  means  other  than  those  we 


T01 


79 


\\Jl 

£  such  means  may  be  one  o^'gjlrhaps  two 

tfeo*  t,o  tlie  ones  menti^qjiedfc; 

^  •'  "|^fc:t-^e  s«v?t^^Kaces  is  an  im- 
portant matter,  and  'sl!T5TrM'^rsfig1fred  out  as  closely  as 
possible.  This  can  always  be  done  with  a  measurable  de- 


have  spok< 
cupolas,  in 
The  correct 


Fig.  26. 

gree  of  certainty  if  the  reverberatory  furnace  has  been  used 
previously,  but  should  the  latter  be  a  new  furnace,  great 
care  and  judgment  must  be  exercised  to  ascertain  about 
how  long  it  will  take  the  20  tons  to  melt.  This  done,  the 
cupolas  must  be  started  at  just  such  times  as  will  bring 
about  as  even  a  finish  as  possible. 

And  now,  supposing  that  the  dam  is  full,  the  two  ladles 
filled  and  in  position,  and  all  the  iron  melted  in  the  re- 


80  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

verberatory  furnace,  place  a  reliable  man  at  the  lever,  who 
will  be  ready  to  obey  orders,  and  have  all  the  tools  ready 
for  opening  the  tap-hole  at  the  reverberatory,  should  it 
prove  refractory, — which  will  certainly  not  be  the  case  if 
the  instructions  previously  given  for  making  up  the  tap- 
hole  have  been  strictly  followed  out. 

Let  ladle  D  commence  first  to  fill  the  bottom,  and  con- 
tinue to  pour  until  all  is  out.  Immediately  after  the  first 
ladle  is  started,  open  dam  and  furnace  simultaneously, 
until  the  runner  is  about  half  full,  when  the  darn  may  be 
checked,  and  allow  the  reverberatory  to  run  clear  out;  but 
should  it  be  found  that  the  stream  from  the  furnace  is  in- 
sufficient to  keep  up  the  requisite  amount  of  head  press- 


Fig.  27. 

ure,  the  dam  can  be  kept  open  sufficient  to  effect  this 
object,  gradually  increasing  the  speed  at  the  dam  as  the 
stream  slackens  at  the  furnace,  until  when  all  the  iron  is 
out  of  the  latter  the  dam  may  be  emptied,  and  ladle  D 
allowed  to  finish  the  cast. 

The  important  object  gained  by  distributing  the  iron  as 
above  described  is,  that  the  furnace,  dam,  and  one  of  the 
ladles  are  sure  of  being  cleaned  out,  thus  leaving  but  one 
stream  to  attend  to;  the  mould  can  then  be  filled  to  a 
nicety,  without  leaving  too  much  iron  in  the  runner. 

Any  surplus  in  the  ladle  can  be  used  for  other  moulds 
which  may  have  been  purposely  made  for  the  occasion. 

As  it  is  barely  possible  to  maintain  the  legitimate  head 
pressure  up  to  the  last  without  leaving  considerable  iron 
in  the  runner,  and  as  the  runner  in  this  case  is  unavoida- 
bly bulky,  provision  must  be  made  for  letting  off  the  same 
into  pig  beds,  formed  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  tho 


CASTINGS.  81 

mould,  as  seen  at  /,  Fig.  18.  This  at  once  converts  what 
would  otherwise  have  been  an  ugly  piece  of  scrap  to  deal 
with,  into  very  desirable  pig  iron,  which  may  be  broken 
into  smaller  pieces  whilst  hot. 


CASTINGS. 

HOW  TO  OBTAIN  THEIR  MEASUREMENT  AND  RECKON 
THEIR  WEIGHTS;  ALSO,  THE  NATURE  AND  QUALITIES 
OF  THE  MATERIALS  USED  IN  PRODUCING  THEM, 
PERCENTAGE  IN  THE  FOUNDRY,  IMPORTANT  FACTS, 
FORMULAS,  TABLES,  ETC. 

EVERY  moulder  should  be  able  to  reckon  the  weight  of 
the  casting  he  makes;  how  many  of  us  lack  that  ability 
need  not  be  discussed  here. 

Some  one  says,  "There  is  no  royal  road  to  learning." 
This  is  true  indeed,  and  he  who  would  obtain  the  ability  to 
measure  and  weigh  the  work  committed  to  his  charge 
must  at  least  master  as  much  arithmetic  and  mensuration 
as  will  enable  him  to  profitably  utilize  the  rules  laid  down 
for  his  guidance  in  these  matters. 

To  such  as  are  ignorant  altogether  of  these  subjects  the 
following  short  treatise  on  decimal  fractions  and  kindred 
subjects  will  be  of  infinite  service;  for  unless  we  know 
the  meaning  of  the  principal  mathematical  characters,  the 
relation  of  vulgar  to  decimal  fractions,  with  some  knowledge 
of  how  to  work  these  rules,  all  information  of  importance 
is  denied  us ;  as  almost  all  formulas  are  expressed  by  these 
signs,  and  their  solution  can  only  be  determined  by  correct 
rales. 

It  is  not  exported  that  even  the  most  intelligent  amongst 


82  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

ns  will  be  prepared  for  the  immediate  solution  of  every 
arithmetical  problem  that  presents  itself  during  an  active 
life  in  the  foundry.  No  matter  how  thorough  our  educa- 
tion may  have  been  at  the  first,  rules  and  formulas  will 
slip  from  the  memory,  and  every  day's  experience  gives 
additional  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  old  adage,  that 
"the  key  that  rests,  rusts."  To  the  latter  the  following 
reminders  will  no  doubt  be  found  acceptable  at  times,  and 
save  an  endless  amount  of  annoyance. 

The  character  or  sign  =  (called  equality)  denotes  that 
the  respective  quantities  between  which  it  is  placed  are 
equal;  as,  1  ton  =  2000  Ibs.  =  32,000  oz. 

The  sign  -f  (called  plus,  or  more)  signifies  that  the 
numbers  between  which  it  is  placed  are  to  be  added 
together;  as,  9  -j-  6  (read  9  plus  6)  =  15.  The  sign  — 
(called  minus,  or  less)  denotes  that  the  quantity  which  it 
precedes  is  to  be  subtracted;  as,  15  —  6  (read  15  minus  6) 
=  9. 

The  sign  X  denotes  that  the  numbers  between  which  it 
is  placed  are  to  be  multiplied  together;  as,  5  X  3  (read  5 
multiplied  by  3)  =  15. 

The  sign  -=-  signifies  division;  15  -4-  3  (15  divided  by  3) 
=  5.  Numbers  placed  like  a  vulgar  fraction  also  denote 
division,  the  upper  number  being  the  dividend  and  the 
lower  the  divisor;  as,  */-  =  5. 

The  signs  :  ::  :  (called  proportionals)  denote  propor- 
tionality; as,  2  :  5  ::  6:15;  signifying  that  the  number  2 
bears  the  same  proportion  to  5  as  6  does  to  15,  or  in  other 
words,  as  2  is  to  5  so  is  6  to  15. 

The  sign  (called  the  bar  or  vinculum)  signifies 

that  the  numbers,  etc.,  over  which  it  is  placed  are  to  be 
taken  together;  as,  8  —  2  +  4  =  10,  or  6  x  3  +  5  =  23. 

The  sign  .  (called  decimal  point)  signifies,  when  placed 
before  a  number,  that  that  number  has  some  power  of  10 
for  its  denominator.  .1  is  -  .17  is 


CASTINGS. 


83 


DECIMAL   FEACTIONS. 

In  decimal  fractions  the  whole  number  is  supposed  to  be 
divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  and  every  one  of  these  ten 
parts  is  supposed  to  be  subdivided  into  other  ten  equal 
parts,  etc. 

The  whole  numbers  being  thus  divided  (by  imagination) 
into  10,  100,  1000,  10000,  etc.,  equal  parts,  become  the  de- 
nominators to  the  decimal  fractions;  thus,  -f27,  y-jj-^,  T^OTT* 

TiJta  etc- 

Now  these  denominators  are  never  set  down,  only  the 

numerators,  and  they  are  either  distinguished  or  separated 
from  the  ivhole  number  by  a  point,  called  the  decimal 
point. 

Thus  5.4  is  5^,  and  0.7  is  TV,  35.05  is  35T^,  or  5  and 
decimal  ^,  seven  tenths,  and  35  and  decimal  five  one 
hundredths. 

Before  proceeding  further  in  notation,  it  will  be  con- 
venient for  the  learner  to  consider  the  following  table, 
which  shows  the  very  foundation  of  decimal  fractions: 


WHOLE  NUMBERS. 

DECIMAL  NUMBERS. 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 

. 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

1 

a 
p 

H 
p 

H 

cr 

0 

W 
5 

H 

C3 

d 

d 

2. 

2 

w 

c 

H 
c 

0 

p 

c 

B 

s 

o' 
c 
P> 

a 
(^ 

o 

Ms 

00 

p 

p 

a 

a. 

1 

w 

SB 

1 

i 

B 

2r 

A 

c 

B* 
I 

§• 

ei- 

cr 

0 

tr 

00 

1 

W 

&• 

s 

| 

• 

O 

Q 

S" 

CL 

O 

H 

Hj 

03 

sr 
0 

M 

1 

ff 

p 

1 

i 

f3 

2. 

^ 

P 
b 

05 

5 

09 

2. 

5' 

r» 

84  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

The  mixed  number  at  the  head  of  this  table  would 
read  seven  million  six  hundred  and  fifty-four  thousand 
three  hundred  and  twenty-one;  and  decimal,  two  hundred 
and  thirty-four  thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty-seven 
million  ths. 

By  this  table  it  is  evident  that  as  in  whole  numbers  every 
degree  from  the  units  place  increases  towards  the  left  hand 
by  a  tenfold  proportion,  so  in  decimal  parts  every  degree 
is  decreased  towards  the  right  hand  by  the  same  proportion, 
viz.,  by  tens. 

Therefore  these  decimal  parts,  or  fractions,  are  really 
more  homogeneal  or  agreeing  with  whole  numbers  than 
vulgar  fractions,  for  all  plain  numbers  are  in  effect  but 
decimal  parts  one  to  another.  That  is,  suppose  any  series 
of  equal  numbers,  as  444,  etc.  The  first  4  towards  the  left 
is  ten  times  the  value  of  the  4  in  the  middle,  and  that  4  in 
the  middle  is  ten  times  the  value  of  the  last  4  to  the  right 
of  it,  and  but  the  tenth  part  of  that  4  on  the  left. 

Therefore  all  of  them  may  be  taken  either  as  whole 
numbers  or  part  of  a  whole  number:  if  whole  numbers, 
then  they  must  be  set  down  without  any  decimal,  or  sepa- 
rating point  between  them;  thus,  444.  But  if  a  whole 
number  and  one  part,  or  fraction,  place  a  -point  betwixt 
them  thus,  44.4,  which  signifies  44  whole  numbers  and  4 
tenths  of  a  unit.  Again,  if  two  places  of  parts  be  re- 
quired, separate  them  with  a  decimal  point;  thus,  4.44, 
viz.,  4  units  and  44  hundredths  of  a  unit,  or  one. 

From  hence  (duly  compared  with  the  table)  it  will  be 
easy  to  conceive  that  decimal  parts  take  their  denomination 
from  the  place  of  their  last  figure;  that  is,  .5  =  -f^,  .56  = 
•ffo,  and  .056  —  T| g^  parts  of  a  unit. 

Ciphers  annexed  to  decimal  parts  do  not  alter  their 
value;  as,  .50  and  .500  or  .5000,  etc.,  are  each  but  5  tenths 
of  a  unit,  for  TW  =  A,  and  AWr  =  A*  or  VWW  =  A- 


CASTINGS.  86 

But  ciphers  prefixed  to  decimal  parts  decrease  their  value 
by  removing  them  further  from  the  decimal  point;  thus, 
5=5  tenths,  .05  =  5  hundredths,  .005  =  5  thousandths, 
and  .0005  —  5  ten  thousandths;  consequently,  the  true 
value  of  all  decimal  fractions,  or  parts,  are  known  by  their 
distance  from  the  units  place,  which  being  rightly  under- 
stood, the  rest  will  be  easy. 

ADDITION   AND   SUBTRACTION   OF   DECIMALS. 

In  setting  down  the  proposed  numbers  to  be  added  or  sub- 
tracted great  care  must  be  taken  to  place  every  figure  directly 
underneath  those  of  the  same  value,  whether  they  be  mixed 
numbers  or  pure  decimal  parts,  and  to  perform  that  due 
regard  must  be  had  to  the  decimal  points  which  ought 
always  to  stand  in  a  direct  line  under  each  other  and  to  the 
right  hand  of  them  carefully  place  the  decimal  parts,  ac- 
cording to  their  respective  values  or  distance  from  unity. 

Rule. — Add  or  subtract  as  if  they  were  all  whole  num- 
bers, and  from  their  sum  or  difference  cut  off  as  many 
decimal  parts  as  are  the  most  in  any  of  the  given  numbers. 

ADDITION. 

Examples. — Let  it  be  required  to  find  the  sum  of  the 
following  numbers : 

34.5 

65.3 

128.7 

95.0 

87.8 

7.9 

Answer 419.2 

When  the  decimal  parts  proposed  to  be  added  (or  sub- 
tracted), do  not  have  the  same  number  of  places,  you  may, 


86  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

for  convenience  of  operation,  fill  the  void*places  by  annex- 
ing ciphers. 


Without  ciphers. 
45.07 
50.758 
123.0057 
74.702 
24.8 


Ans.  318.3357 


With  ciphers 
45.0700 
50.7580 
123.0057 
74.7020 
24.8000 

Ans.  318.3357 


EXAMPLES  IN  SUBTRACTION. 


Without 
ciphers. 

With 
ciphers. 

From  .... 
Take  

437.5 

89.657 

75.0534 

57.875 

562. 
93.5784 

562.0000 
93.5784 

Remains  .  . 

347.843 

17.1784 

468.4216 

468.4216 

From  
Take  

345.7578 
157. 

345.7578 
157.0000 

0.547893 
0.439758 

1.000000 
0.997543 

Remains..  188.7578    188.7578    0.108135   0.002457 


MULTIPLICATION  OF   DECIMALS. 

Whether  the  numbers  to  be  multiplied  are  pure  decimals 
or  mixed,  multiply  them  as  if  they  were  all  whole  numbers, 
and  for  the  true  value  of  their  product  observe  this 

Rule. — Out  off — that  is,  separate  by  the  decimal  point — as 
many  places  of  decimal  parts  in  the  product  as  there  are 
decimal  parts  in  the  multiplier  and  multiplicand  counted 
together. 


CASTINGS.  87 

EXAMPLES. 

(1)  Multiply  3.024  by  2.23.        (2)  Multiply  32.12  by  24.3. 

3.024  32.12 

2.23  2.43 

9072  9636 

6048  12848 

6048  6424 

6.74352,  ans.  780.516,  ans. 

The  reason  why  such  a  number  of  decimal  parts  must  be 
cut  off  in  the  product  may  be  easily  deduced  from  these 
examples. 

In  example  1,  it  is  evident  that  3,  the  whole  number  in 
the  multiplicand,  being  multiplied  with  2,  the  whole  num- 
ber in  the  multiplier,  can  produce  but  6  (viz.,  3x2  =  6); 
so  that  of  necessity  all  the  other  figures  in  the  product 
must  be  decimal  parts,  according  as  the  rule  directs.  Or, 
the  rule  is  evident  from  the  multiplication  of  ivhole  num- 
bers only.  Thus,  suppose  3000  were  to  be  multiplied  with 
200,  their  product  will  be  600.000;  that  is,  there  will  be  as 
many  ciphers  in  the  product  as  there  are  in  both  multiplier 
and  multiplicand  /  now,  if  instead  of  those  ciphers  in  the 
multiplier  and  multiplicand  we  suppose  the  like  number 
of  decimal  parts,  then  it  follows  that  there  ought  to  be 
the  same  number  of  decimal  parts  in  the  product  as  there 
were  ciphers  in  both  factors. 

Again>  the  rule  may  be  otherwise  made  evident  from 
vulgar  fractions;  thus,  let  32.12  be  multiplied  with  24.3  and 
their  product  will  be  780.516,  as  in  example  2,  above.  Now 
32.12  =  32^0,  and  24.3  =  24^,  which  being  brought  into 
improper  fractions,  will  become  32-j^  =  $•££•£-,  and  24T3¥  = 
W-  Then  -\Vo2-  X  -W-  =  *im*>  but  ij»jp  =  780^, 
viz.,  780.516,  as  before.  Any  of  these  three  ways  sufficiently 
prove  the  truth  of  the  above  said  rule,  etc. 


88  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  in  multiplying  decimal  part* 
with  decimal  parts,  there  will  not  be  as  many  figures  in 
the  product  as  there  ought  to  be  p laces  of  decimal  parts, 
by  the  rule.  In  that  case  you  must  supply  their  defect  by 
prefixing  ciphers  to  the  product,  as  in  these  examples : 

.2365  .0347 

.2435  .0236 

11825 
7095 
9460 
4730  — 


.05758775 


.00081892 


When  any  proposed  number  of  decimals  is  to  be  multi- 
plied with  10,  100,  1000,  10000,  etc.,  it  is  only  removing  the 
decimal  point  in  the  multiplicand  so  many  places  to  the 
right  hand  as  there  are  ciphers  in  the  multiplier.  Thus, 
.578  X  10  =  5.78.  And  .578  X  100  =  57.8.  Again  .578  X 
1000  =  578. 

DIVISION   OF   DECIMALS. 

Division  is  accounted  the  most  difficult  part  of  decimal 
arithmetic.  In  order,  therefore,  to  make  it  plain,  it  will 
be  best  to  examine  the  chief  principles  of  the  rule. 

Division  is  the  rule  by  which  one  number  may  be  speed- 
ily subtracted  from  another  as  many  times  as  it  is  con- 
tained therein;  that  is,  it  speedily  discovers  how  often  one 
number  is  contained  in  another,  and  to  perform  that  there 
are  two  numbers  required  to  be  given.  One  of  them  is  that 
number  which  is  proposed  to  be  divided,  and  is  called  the 
dividend;  the  other  is  that  number  by  which  the  said  divi- 
dend is  to  be  divided,  and  is  called  the  divisor.  By  com- 
paring these  two,  viz.,  the  dividend  and  the  divisor 
together,  there  arises  a  third  number  called  the  quotient, 


CASTINGS.  89 

which  shows  how  often  the  divisor  is  contained  in  the 
dividend^  or  into  what  number  of  equal  parts  the  dividend 
is  then  divided. 

The  quotient  figure  is  always  of  the  same  value  or 
degree,  with  that  figure  of  the  dividend  under  which  the 
units  place  of  its  product  stand.  As  for  instance,  let  294 
be  divided  by  4,  thus : 


\  004.  /  *  j  ^his  *s  no^  ^>  kut  ^  0,  because  the  units  place  of 
)    ' ,    ((4x7  stands  under  the  tens  place  of  the  dividend. 

/     /vO          \ 

3     This  is  only  3. 


14  ( 
12  V 


2,  remainder.     Hence  73}  is  the  quotient. 

Now  if  to  the  remainder  2  there  is  annexed  a  cipher 
(thus,  2.0),  and  then  divided  on,  it  must  needs  follow  that 
the  units  place  of  the  product  arising  from  the  divisor 
into  the  quotient  will  stand  under  the  annexed  cipher ; 
consequently,  the  quotient  figure  will  be  of  the  same  value 
or  degree  with  the  place  of  that  cipher.  But  that  is  the 
next  below  the  units  place,  therefore  the  quotient  figure  is 
of  the  next  degree,  or  place  below  unity;  that  is,  in  the 
first  place  of  decimal  parts,  thus,  4)2.0(.5;  so  that 
4)294.0(73.5,  the  true  quotient  required. 

This  being  well  understood,  division  of  decimals  may  in 
all  the  various  cases  be  easily  performed. 

Definition. — If  that  number  which  divides  another  be 
multiplied  with  another  number  which  is  quoted,  their 
product  will  be  the  number  divided. 

This  definition  alone,  if  compared  with  the  rule  for  mul- 
tiplication, will  afford  a  general  rule  for  discovering  the 
true  value  of  the  quotient  figure  in  division  of  decimals. 


90  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


GENERAL  RULE. 

The  place  of  decimal  parts  in  the  divisor  and  quotient 
being  counted  together,  must  always  be  equal  in  number 
with  those  of  the  dividend. 

From  this  general  rule  ariseth  four  cases. 

CASE  1. — When  the  places  of  parts  in  the  divisor  and 
dividend  are  equal,  the  quotient  will  be  whole  numbers,  as 
in  these 

EXAMPLES. 

8.45)  295.75  (35,  ans.  0.0078)  .4368  (56,  ans. 

2535  390 

4225  468 

4225  468 

CASE  2. — When  the  places  of  parts  in  the  dividend  ex- 
ceed those  in  the  divisor,  cut  off  the  excess  for  decimal 
parts  in  the  quotient,  as  in  these 

EXAMPLES. 

24.3)  780.516  (32.12       436)  34246.056  (78.546 
729  3052 


515  3726 

486    .534)  .30438  (.57  3488 

2670 

291  2380 
243  3738  2180 
3738  


486  2005 

486  1744 

2616 
2616 


CASTINGS.  91 

CASE  3. — When  there  are  not  so  many  places  of  decimals 
in  the  dividend  as  are  in  the  divisor,  annex  ciphers  to  the 
dividend  to  make  them  equal.  Then  the  quotient  will  be 
whole  numbers  as  in  case  1. 

Examples. — Let  it  be  required  to  divide  192.1  by  7.684 
and  441  by  .7875. 

7.684)192.100(25,  ans.  .7875)441.0000(560,  ans. 

153  68  393  75 


38  420  47  250 

38  420  47  250 

CASE  4. — If,  after  division  is  finished,  there  are  not  so 
many  figures  in  the  quotient  as  there  ought  to  be  places  of 
decimals  by  the  general  rule,  supply  their  defect  ~by  prefix- 
ing ciphers  to  it. 

Examples. — Let  it  be  required  to  divide  7.25406  by  957. 
957)7.25406(758,  or  with  ciphers  prefixed,  as  per  rule, 

6  699  .00758,  the  true  quotient. 

5550 

4785 

7656 
7656 

Divide  .0007475  by  .575. 

.575).0007475(13  or  .0013,  the  true  quotient  required. 
575 

1725 
1725 

Note. — When  decimal  numbers  are  to  be  divided  by  10, 
100,  1000,  10000,  etc.,  that  is,  when  the  divisor  is  a  unit 
with  ciphers,  division  is  performed  by  removing  or  placing 


92  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  decimal  point  in  the  dividend  so  many  places  towards 
the  left  hand  as  there  are  ciphers  in  the  divisor;  thus, 

10)5784(578.4,  100)5784(57.84, 

1000)5784(5.784,  10000)5784(.5784,  etc. 

It  will  be  seen  that  these  operations  are  the  direct  con 
verse  to  those  at  the  end  of  multiplication. 

TO    REDUCE    VULGAR    FRACTIONS    TO    THEIR    EQUIVALENT 
DECIMALS,   AND  THE   CONTRARY. 

Any  vulgar  fraction  being  given,  it  may  be  reduced  or 
changed  into  decimal  parts  equivalent  to  it ;  thus : 

Rule. — Annex  ciphers  to  the  numerator  and  then  divide 
it  by  the  denominator;  the  quotient  will  be  the  decimal 
parts  equivalent  to  the  given  fraction,  or  at  least  so  near 
it  as  may  be  thought  necessary  to  approach. 

Examples.— It  is  required  to  change  or  reduce  J-inch 
into  the  decimal  of  an  inch. 

OPERATION. 

4)3.00(.75,  ans.  The  decimal  parts  required,  that  is, 

28  i  =  TV<r  =  -75  inch. 

20 
20 
Again,  \  —  .5,  thus  2)1.0(.5;  and  j-  —  .25,  thus 

4)1.00(.25. 
Suppose  it  were  required  to  change  f  into  decimals : 

7)4.0000000000(.5714285714  +  =  f 
Note. — When  the  last  figure  of  the  divisor  (that  is,  the 
denominator  of  the  proposed  fraction)  happens  to  be  one 
of  these  figures,  viz.,  1,  3,  7,  or  9,  as  in  this  example,  then 
the  decimal  parts  can  never  be  precisely  equal  to  the  given 
fraction,  yet  by  continuing  the  division  on  you  may  bring 
them  to  be  very  near  the  truth. 

For  all  practical  purposes  in  the  foundry,  three  places 


CASTINGS.  93 

of  decimals  are  sufficiently  near,  the  operation  being  con- 
siderably shortened  by  leaving  out  the  rest. 

When  a  decimal  does  not  terminate  as  in  the  example 
above,  the  sign  plus  (-f )  is  annexed,  which  indicates  that 
the  division  could  be  continued. 

TO   KEDUCE   A   DECIMAL  TO   A   COMMON"   FRACTION. 

Rule. — Erase  the  decimal  point  and  write  under  the 
numerator  its  decimal  denominator  and  reduce  the  fraction 
to  its  lowest  term. 

Example. — Reduce  .125  inch  to  its  equivalent  common 
fraction. 

Operation. — .125  =  -f-f^  —  -ff^  =  -£$  =  ^inch,  ans. 

TO   REDUCE   A   SIMPLE   OR   COMPOUND   NUMBER  TO    A  DECI- 
MAL  OF   A   HIGHER   DENOMINATION. 

Rule  for  Simple  Number. — Divide  by  the  number  of 
parts  in  the  next  higher  denominations,  continuing  the 
operation  as  far  as  required. 

Example.— Reduce  1  foot  to  the  decimal  of  a  yard. 


1.000 


.  333  -f  yard,  ans. 

Rule  for  Compound  Numbers. — Reduce  them  all  to  the 
lowest  denomination,  and  proceed  as  for  one  denomination. 

Example.— Reduce  15  feet  9|  inches  to  the  decimal  of  <t 
yard. 

OPERATION. 

feet.  inches.  qrs. 

15  9  3 

12  in.  =  1  foot. 


189 

4  qrs.  =  1  inch. 


4 
12 
3 

759.00 

189.7500 

15.8125 

5.2708  -f  yard,  ans. 


94  THE  IEON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

TO   FIND   THE   VALUE   OF   A   DECIMAL   IN  WHOLE  NUMBERS 
OF   LOWER    DENOMINATIONS. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  decimal  by  that  number  which  will 
reduce  it  to  the  next  lower  denomination,  and  point  off  as 
in  multiplication  of  decimals. 

Then  multiply  the  decimal  part  of  the  product,  and 
point  off  as  before.  So  continue  till  the  decimal  is  reduced 
to  the  denomination  required. 

The  several  whole  numbers  of  the  successive  products 
will  be  the  answer. 

Examples. — 1.  What  is  the  volume  of  .140  cubic  feet  in 
inches  ? 

OPERATION. 
.140 

1728  cubic  inches  =  1  cubic  foot. 


1120 
280 
980 
140 

241.920  cubic  inches,  ans. 

2.  What  is  the  value  of  .00129  of  a  foot,  and  also  the 
value  of  .015625  of  an  inch  ? 

OPERATION.  OPERATION. 

.00129  .015625 

12        inches  =  1  foot.  64 

.01548  inches,  ans.  62500 

93750 


Answer.     1.000000  =  -fa  of  an  in. 

By  the  same  rule  .75  of  a  foot  =  9  inches,  .25  of  a  ton  = 
500  Ibs.,  .5  of  an  inch  =  £  inch,  .0625  of  an  inch  =  -fa 
inch,  etc. 


The  fol 
going  rules 

VULGAR   FRACT 


EIB  DECIMAL 


fa  =  .015625 

t  =  .3125 

ft  =  .6875 

^V  =  -03125 

=  .375 

f  =  .75 

•fy  =  .0625 

rV  =  .4375 

if  =  .8125 

i  =  .125 

4  =.5 

f  =.875 

•fc  =  .1875 

W  =  .5625 

if  =  .9375 

i  =.25 

f  =  .625 

1  =  1.0000 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  RULES  IN  MENSURATION '  USED 
FOR  FINDING  THE  WEIGHTS  OF  CASTINGS  OF  ALL 
SHAPES  AND  DIMENSIONS. 

Before  we  can  rightly  apply  the  foregoing  rules  in  arith- 
metic to  the  determining  of  the  weights  of  castings,  we 
must  first  ascertain  the  number  of  cubic  inches  contained 
in  the  object.  Then  by  referring  to  the  table  of  weights 
and  strength  of  material  (found  near  the  end  of  this  chap- 
ter, we  find,  in  the  first  column,  the  weight  of  one  cubic 
inch  of  whatever  metal  we  are  going  to  cast  with.  This  is 
used  as  a  multiplier,  and  gives  us  the  exact  weight  in 
pounds  avoirdupois  of  the  total  number  of  cubic  inches 
contained  in  the  casting. 

To  obtain  correctly  the  number  of  cubic  inches  of  cast- 
ings more  or  less  irregular  in  shape,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
operator  should  have  some  little  knowledge  of  mensuration; 
but  as  most  of  the  books  devoted  to  that  subject  are  written 
for  the  high  schools  and  colleges,  in  language  hard  to  un- 
derstand by  the  unlearned,  the  information  they  contain 
seldom  reaches  the  ordinary  moulder;  in  fact,  boys  fresh 
from  school  who  enter  our  foundries  are  not  always  suffi- 
ciently advanced  in  their  studies  to  know  very  much  of  this 


96  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

subject.  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  older  boys  with 
a  knowledge  of  the  rules  in  mensuration  firmly  fixed  in 
their  minds  fail  in  making  a  practical  application  of 
their  schooling  when  in  the  foundry. 

In  order  to  make  this  subject  plain  to  such  as  are  igno- 
rant of  the  rules  in  mensuration,  I  propose  to  give  as  many 
(full)  examples  as  will  enable  the  student  to  calculate  the 
exact  weight  of  every  description  of  casting,  and  as  a  means 
of  impressing  the  subject  more  firmly  on  his  mind,  every 
example  will  be  accompanied  by  a  full  explanation  of  the 
rules  which  govern  each  particular  case. 

The  following  definitions,  properly  understood,  will  ma- 
terially help  the  understanding,  and  make  the  study  of 
these  subjects  much  more  easy  and  pleasant. 

Mensuration. — Mensuration  is  the  process  of  determin- 
ing the  areas  of  surfaces  and  the  solidity  or  volume  of 
solids. 

A  plane  figure  is  an  enclosed  plane  surface  ;  if  bounded 
by  straight  lines  only,  it  is  called  a  rectilineal  figure  or 
polygon. 

The  perimeter  of  a  figure  is  its  boundary  or  contour. 

Three-sided,  polygons  are  called  triangles,  those  of  four 
sides  quadrilaterals,  those  of  five  sides  pentagons,  etc. 

Triangles. — An  equilateral  triangle  is  one  whose  sides 
are  all  equal,  as  GAD,  Fig.  28. 

Note. — The  line  AB  drawn  from  the  angle  A,  perpen- 
dicular to  the  base  CD,  is  the  altitude  of  the  triangle  CAD. 

An  isosceles  triangle  is  one  which  has  two  of  its  sides 
equal,  as  EFG,  Fig.  29. 

A  scalene  triangle  is  one  which  has  its  three  sides  un- 
equal, as  HIT,  Fig.  30. 

A  right-angled  triangle  is  one  which  has  a  right  angle, 
as  KLM,  Fig.  31. 

To  Find  the  Area  of  a  Triangle. — Multiply  the  base  by 
half  the  altitude  and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 


CASTINGS.  97 

Now,  supposing  we  have  a  casting  answering  to  the  form 
of  an  equilateral  triangle,  Fig.  28;  the  base  CD  measuring 
36  inches,  the  altitude  AB  24  inches,  and  the  thickness  3 
inches,  what  weight  will  such  a  casting  be  in  cast  iron  ? 
We  proceed  thus : 

OPERATION. 

Base 36 

Half  of  altitude 12 

Total  area  in  superficial  square 

inches 432 

Thickness  in  inches 3 

Total  cubic  inches 1296 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch,  cast  iron .  .263 

3888 
7776 
2592 


Total  weight  in  pounds ..  3  4  0.8  4  8,  ans.,  nearly  341  Ibs. 

If  we  desire  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  such  a  casting  in 
gold,  we  simply  find  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  gold,  in 
the  table,  viz.,  .696  for  a  multiplier,  and  proceed  thus: 
1296  X  .696  =  902.016,  or  slightly  over  902  pounds  for 
gold. 

Castings  having  the  form  of  an  isosceles  triangle,  Fig.  29, 
are  to  be  figured  as  in  the  preceding  example. 

All  such  as  take  the  form  of  a  scalene  triangle,  Fig.  30, 
must  be  proceeded  with  after  this  manner :  Let  a  perpen- 
dicular be  drawn  from  /  to  the  base,  and  proceed  to  form  a 
rectangle  about  the  figure,  as  shown  by  the  broken  lines. 
You  now  have  two  rectangles,  one  on  each  side  of  the  per- 
pendicular from  7,  and,  as  triangle  is  equivalent  to  one 
half  of  a  rectangle  having  an  equal  base  and  an  equal  al- 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Fig.  30. 


Fig.  31. 


Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  36. 


Fig.  37. 


Fig.  38.  Fig.  39. 


Fig.  40. 


///////////I 


Fig.  41.        Fig.  42.  Fig.  43.  Fig.  44.  Fig.  45. 


CASTINGS.  99 

titude  with  the  triangle,  it  is  evident  that  one  half  each  of 
the  rectangles  added  together  will  give  the  area  of  such  a 
triangle. 

This  once  properly  understood  makes  the  mensuration 
of  angles  very  simple.  Of  course,  when  the  superficial  area 
of  all  such  figures  is  procured,  it  only  remains  to  multiply 
by  the  number  of  inches  thick,  and  then  by  the  weight  of 
a  cubic  inch,  as  before  directed,  to  obtain  the  exact  weight 
in  pounds, 

This  brings  us  to  the  right-angled  triangle,  Fig.  31,  which, 
as  seen  by  the  broken  lines,  is  but  the  half  of  the  rectangle 
whose  base  is  KL  and  sides  LM\  therefore,  if  the  weight 
of  a  casting  is  required  that  has  the  form  of  a  right-angled 
triangle,  multiply  the  base  KL  by  the  altitude  LM,  and 
divide  the  product  by  2  for  the  area,  then  proceed  as  in 
the  preceding  cases  for  total  cubic  inches  and  weight. 

It  will  be  clearly  understood  from  the  above  that  the 
area  of  all  quadrilateral  figures  whose  opposite  sides  are 
parallel,  such  as  the  square,  rhombus,  rhomboid,  and  rec- 
tangle, is  found  by  multiplying  the  base  with  the  altitude. 

Regular  polygons  are  named  after  the  number  of  sides 
contained  in  the  figure,  those  with  3  sides  being  triangle  ; 
4,  square ;  5,  pentagon  ;  6,  hexagon ;  7,  heptagon  ;  8,  oc- 
tagon ;  9,  nonagon ;  10,  decagon;  11,  undecagon,  and  12, 
duodecagon. 

The  rule  for  finding  the  area  of  a  regular  polygon  is  the 
same  for  any  number  of  sides,  so  that  one  illustration  will 
be  sufficient  to  show  how  all  such  castings  may  be  measured 
and  their  respective  weights  found. 

KULE   TO   FIND  THE   AREA   OF   POLYGONS. 

Multiply  the  sum  of  the  sides  or  perimeter  of  the  poly- 
gon by  the  perpendicular,  demitted  from  its  centre  to  one 
of  its  sides,  and  half  the  product  will  be  the  area. 


100  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Example. — Eequired  the  weight  of  a  casting,  in  iron, 
having  the  form  of  a  regular  hexagon  ABCDEF,  Fig.  32, 
whose  side  AB  is  20|  inches,  and  perpendicular  PO  is 
17£  inches,  thickness  1  inch. 

OPERATION. 

Length  of  side  AB 2  0.5 

Number  of  sides >• 6 

Sum  of  sides 1  2  3.0 

Length  of  perpendicular 1  7.7  5 


2  1  8  3.2  5  0,  product. 


Half  of  product— area 1  0  9  1.6  2  5 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch,  cast  iron .263 

3274875 
6549750 
2183240 


Total  weight  in  Ibs 2  8  7.0  9  6  3  7  5,  ans. 

If  such  a  casting  were  wanted  1  inch  thick  in  lead,  then 
the  area,  1091.625  inches,  must  be  multiplied  by  .410,  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  that  metal,  as  found  in  the  first 
column  of  the  table  before  mentioned. 


THE   CIRCLE. 

Before  attempting  to  determine  the  weights  of  castings 
that  are  circular  in  shape,  it  will  be  necessary  to  explain 


CASTINGS.  101 

some  of  the  very  important  principles  connected  with  this 
interesting  figure.  These  thoroughly  understood  will  make 
a  solution  of  the  problems  much  easier. 

In  the  first  place,  there  is  no  figure  that  affords  a  greater 
variety  of  useful  properties  than  the  circle,  nor  is  there  any 
that  contains  so  large  an  area  within  the  same  perimeter  or 
outer  boundary. 


TO   FIND   THE   CIRCUMFERENCE   AND    DIAMETER   OF   A 
CIRCLE. 

The  circumference  of  a  circle  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  diameter  by  3.1416. 

The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
circumference  by  .31831,  or  dividing  by  3.1416. 

Examples. — If  the  diameter  of  a  circle  be  12  feet,  what 
is  the  circumference  ? 

OPERATION. 

Decimal  multiplier  3.1  4  1  6 

Diameter . .  12 


Circumference  required 3  7. 6992  feet,  ans. 

If  the  circumference  of  a  circle  be  45  feet,  what  is  the 
diameter  ? 


OPERATION. 


Decimal  multiplier 31831 

Circumference . .  45 


159155 
127324 

Diameter  required 1  4.3  2  3  9  5  feet,  ans. 


102  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


TO   FIND   THE   ABEA   OF   A   CIKCLE. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854 
and  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

Note. — The  square  of  any  number  is  that  number  multi- 
plied by  itself,  as  12  X  12  =  144,  etc. 

Example. — What  is  the  area  of  a  circle  whose  diameter 
is  106? 

OPERATION. 

Diameter 106 

106 


636 

1060 

Square  of  diameter 11236 

Decimal  multiplier 7854 

44944 
6180 
89888 
78652 


Total  area 8  8  2  4.7  5  4  4,  ans 

A  right  application  of  the  rules  for  circumference,  diam- 
eter, and  areas  of  circles  will  enable  us  to  arrive  at  the 
correct  weight  of  any  cylindrical  castings,  such  as  pipes, 
columns,  wheel-rims,  cylinders,  etc.,  as  well  as  circular 
plates  and  solids. 

Again,  a  combination  of  all  the  rules  is  practically  all 
that  is  needed  for  ascertaining  the  weight  of  all  flat-bot- 
tomed tanks,  backs,  boilers,  pans,  etc.,  either  round  or 
square,  as  well  as  solids  of  similar  form. 

Let  us  proceed  to  find  the  weight  of  an  18-inch  round 


CASTINGS.  103 

column  1J  inches  thick  and  10  feet  long.  In  order  to 
obtain  the  correct  weight  it  is  necessary  that  we  take  the 
centre  or  middle  of  the  thickness  for  our  line  of  diameter 
or  circumference;  so  it  is  customary  to  add  the  thickness  of 
the  casting  to  the  inner  diameter  and  by  this  means  obtain 
the  correct  working  diameter,  but  this  is  when  we  speak  of 
castings  such  as  cylinders,  pipes,  etc.,  the  size  of  which  are 
based  on  the  inside  diameter  and  not  on  the  outside,  as  is 
the  case  in  columns,  wheel-rims,  etc. 

In  the  latter  case  it  becomes  necessary  to  subtract  the 
thickness  from  the  outside  diameter,  which,  when  done, 
makes  the  operation  of  finding  the  weight  of  an  18-inch 
column  equivalent  to  finding  the  weight  of  a  15-inch 
pipe  of  the  same  thickness. 

TO   FIND   THE   WEIGHT   OF   CYLINDERS,   PIPES,   WHEEL- 
KIMS,   ROUND   COLUMNS,   ETC. 

Rule  1. — For  castings  the  size  of  which  is  based  on  the 
inside  measurement. 

To  the  inner  diameter  add  the  thickness  of  metal,  mul- 
tiply by  3.1416  for  circumference  and  the  product  by  the 
thickness.  This  gives  the  number  of  superficial  inches 
contained  in  the  end  section  of  the  casting,  which,  when 
multiplied  by  the  length,  gives  the  total  cubic  inches  con- 
tained in  the  whole,  the  weight  of  which  is  obtained  by 
multiplying  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  the  metal  to 
be  used  (found  in  the  first  column  of  table). 

Rule  2. — For  castings,  the  size  of  which  are  based  on 
the  outside  measurement. 

From  the  outer  diameter  subtract  the  thickness  of  metal 
and  continue  the  operation  as  directed  in  Rule  1. 

Example. — What  is  the  weight  (in  cast  iron)  of  a  column 
18  inches  in  diameter,  1J  inches  thick,  and  10  feet  long  ? 


104  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

OPEK  \TION. 

Diameter  of  column  in  inches 18 

Subtract  thickness 1.5  =  1  £  in. 


Working  diameter 1  6.5 

Decimal  multiplier  for  circumference.    .   3.1416 

990 
165 
660 
165 
495 


Circumference 5  1.8  3  6  4  0 

Thickness 1.5  =  \    in. 


25918200 
5  1.8  3  6  4  0 

Superficial  inches  in  end  section ...  7  7. 754600 
One  foot  in  length 12 

Cubic  inches  in  1  foot  long 9  3  3.0  5  5  2  0  0 

.2  6=  weight 

cu.  in. 

5598331200 
1866110400 


Weight  of  1  foot  long 24  2.5  9435200 

10 


Total  weight  in  pounds ...  2  4  2  5.9  4  3  5  2  0  0  0,  ans. 

Note. — The  decimal  multiplier  is  here  changed  from 
.263  Ib.  to  .26  Ib.  This  shortens  the  sum  considerably 
without  much  loss  practically. 

Thus  making  the  total  weight  of  a  column  18  inches 
diameter,  1J  inches  thick,  and  10  feet  long,  to  be  2426 
pounds,  nearly. 


CASTINGS.  105 

It  will  be  seen  that  I  first  get  the  weight  of  one  foot  in 
length,  which  is  found  to  be  242J  pounds,  and  then  mul- 
tiply by  length  of  the  column.  This  is  a  very  good  plan, 
as  it  furnishes  very  useful  data  for  future  reference. 

What  is  the  weight  of  a  cast-iron  ring  or  cylinder  86 
inches  inside  diameter,  2  inches  thick,  and  12  inches  deep  ? 

OPERATION. 

Inside  diameter  of  ring 86 

Thickness  added 2 

Working  diameter 88 

Decimal  multiplier  for  circumference 3.1  4  1  6 

528 
88 
352 
88 
264 


Circumference 2  7  6.4  6  0  8 

Thickness 2 

Superficial  inches  in  end  section 5  5  2.9  216 

Twelve  inches  long 12 

Cubic  inches  in  12  inches  long 6  6  3  5.0  592 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch .26 

398103552 
132701184 

Total  weight 1  7  2  5.1  1  5  3  9  2,  ans. 

Thus  making  the  weight  of  this  casting  1726  pounds, 
nearly. 

We  come  now  to  the  consideration  of  circular  plates  and 
circular  solids;  to  ascertain  the  weight  of  which,  the  rule 
for  finding  the  area  of  a  circle  is  to  be  practically  applied. 

TO   FIND   THE    WEIGHT   OF   CIRCULAR   PLATES   AND    CIR- 
CULAR  SOLIDS,    CAPACITY    OF   LADLES,    ETC. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  .7854  for 
the  superficial  area,  in  square  inches,  and  the  product  by 


106  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  thickness  for  the  total  cubic  inches.  This  product 
multiplied  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  will  give  the 
weight  in  pounds  avoirdupois. 

Example.— ~Fmd  the  weight  of  a  circular  plate,  in  cast 
iron,  the  diameter  of  which  is  90  inches  and  thickness  2£ 
inches. 

OPERATION. 

Diameter 90 

90 


Square  of  diameter 8100 

Decimal  multiplier  for  area 7854 

32400 
'40500 
64800 

56700 

Total  area  in  square  inches 6  3  6  1.7  4  0  0 

Total  area  in  square  inches 6361. 7400 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch .2  6 

381704400 
127234800 

Weight  at  1  inch  thick 165  4.0  52400 

Thickness ._. 2.5  =  2J  in. 

8270262000 
3308104800 
Total  weight  at  2J  in.  thick.4  13  5. 1310000,  ans. 

Showing  the  weight  to  be  a  trifle  over  4135  pounds. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  instead  of  multiplying  by  the 
whole  thickness,  I  first  ascertain  the  weight  at  one  inch 
thick.  This,  as  before  observed,  serves  as  data  by  which  to 
ascertain  the  weight  at  90  inches  diameter  of  solids  at  any 
depth  whatever;  thus: 

What  is  the  weight  of  circular  solid  90  inches  diameter 
and  24  inches  deep  ? 


CASTINGS.  107 

OPERATION. 

Weight  of  plate  90  in.  diameter,  1  in.  thick, 

as  found  above 1654.05-f 

Depth  in  inches 2_4 

661620 
330810 

Weight  in  pounds 3  9  6  9  7.2  0 

Showing  that  a  circular  solid  90  inches  diameter  and  2-i 
inches  deep  weighs  a  little  over  39697  pounds. 

It  will  be  seen  how,  by  this  rule,  it  becomes  an  easy 
matter  to  measure  the  capacity  of  any  ladle  when  the 
diameter  and  depth  are  known. 

TO  COMPUTE  THE  CAPACITY  OF  LADLES. 

Examples. — Required  the  capacity  of  a  ladle,  the  diam- 
eter of  inside  of  lining  averaging  2  feet  and  depth  2  feet. 

OPERATION. 

Diameter  inside  lining,  in  inches ..24 

24 

9  6 

48 

Square  of  diameter 576 

.7854 

2304 
2880 
4608 
4032 

Area  in  square  inches 4523904 

Depth  in  inches 24 

18095616 
9047808 


Total  cubic  in.  of  space 1  0  8  5  7.3  6  9  0 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch .26 

651442140 
217147380 

Total  capacity 2  8  2  2.9  1  5  9  4  0,  ans. 


108  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Showing  the  total  capacity  of  the  ladle  to  be  nearly  2823 
pounds. 

What  was  said  with  regard  to  the  application  of  the 
rules  relating  to  circumference  and  area  for  obtaining  the 
weight  of  flat-bottomed  tanks  and  pans  will  be  here  illus- 
trated. 

TO   FIND    THE   WEIGHT   OF    FLAT-BOTTOMED    TANKS,    PANS, 

ETC. 

Example. — What  is  the  weight  of  a  flat-bottomed  pan, 
similar  to  Fig.  33,  86  inches  diameter  and,  30  inches  deep 
inside  measurement,  the  bottom  to  be  2£  inches  and  the 
side  2  inches  thick. 

We  have  already  found  the  weight  of  the  bottom,  or 
plate  90  inches  diameter,  2£  inches  thick  to  be  4135.1  -f 
pounds  and  the  ring  86  inches  inside  diameter,  1  foot  long 
was  1725.1  pounds.  The  latter  multiplied  by  2J,  the  in- 
side depth,  gives  4312.75  pounds,  which  sum  added  to 
4135.1,  the  weight  of  the  bottom,  makes  the  total  weight 
of  such  a  pan  8448  pounds,  nearly;  thus: 

Weight  of  1  foot  on  length  of  side..l  7  2  5.1 

2.5  =  30  in.  or  2  J  ft. 


86255 
34502 

Total  weight  of  side  or  ring. 4  3  1  2.7  5 
Weight  of  bottom 4135.1 

Total  weight  of  pan 8  4  4  7.8  5,  ans. 

TO  FIND  THE  WEIGHT  OF  A  CIRCULAR  RING  INCLUDED 
BETWEEN  THE  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  TWO  CONCENTRIC 
CIRCLES,  AB  AND  CD,  FIG.  34. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  sum  of  the  two  diameters  by  their 
difference  and  this  product  by  .7854  for  the  area.     Then 


CASTINGS.  109 

multiply  the  area  by  the  thickness  and  again  by  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  inch;  the  product  will  be  the  weight  of  the  ring 
in  pounds. 

.Example. — Required  the  weight  of  a  circular  ring  with 
outside  diameter  72  inches  and  inside  diameter  58  inches, 
and  2f  inches  thick. 

OPERATION. 

72 
58 


Sum  of  the  two  diameters 130 

Difference  of  the  two  diameters 14 

520 
130 

1820 
Decimal  multiplier  for  area 7854 

7280 
9100 
14560 
12740 


Area  in  superficial  square  inches..  .142  9. 4280 
Thickness 2.7  5  =  2|  in. 


71471400 
100059960 
28588560 


3  9  3  0.9  2  7 
Weight  of  a  cubic  inch .26 


23585562 

7861854 


Total  weight 10  2  2.0  4  1  0  2,  ans. 


110  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Which  gives  the   total   weight  of  the  ring  about   1022 
pounds. 

Note. — The  rule  for  the  above  example  may  not  be  very 
clear  to  those  unaccustomed  to  mathematical  terms.  For 
the  benefit  of  such  I  would  say  that  "  the  sum  of  the  two 
diameters  "  means  that  the  diameters  72  and  58  are  to  be 
added  together.  As  seen,  this  gives  a  total  of  130. 
"  Their  difference  "  means  that  the  lesser,  or  58,  is  to  be 
substracted  from  72,  the  greater,  and  the  remainder  or 
"  difference,"  14,  used  as  a  multiplier. 

TO    FIND    THE    WEIGHT    OF    KETTLES    OB    PANS    WITH 
SPHERICAL   OE    ROUND   BOTTOMS,   ETC. 

In  order  to  make  this  subject  as  plain  as  possible  it  will 
be  necessary  to  explain  how  the  area  of  a  sphere  is  found. 

The  surface  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  the  convex  surface  of 
the  circumscribing  cylinder.  This  simply  means  that  the 
surface  of  a  sphere  is  equal  to  the  outer  surface  of  a 
cylinder  whose  diameter  and  height  are  both  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  sphere;  hence  the  rule  to  find  the  surface 
of  the  sphere  is,  to  multiply  the  circumference  by  the 
diameter.  Consequently,  when  we  would  determine  the 
weight  of  a  pan  that,  like  Fig.  35,  is  an  exact  half  sphere, 
we  have  only  to  multiply  the  circumference  at  the  mouth, 
AB,  by  the  depth,  at  CD,  which  in  this  case  is  just  one 
half  the  diameter. 

Rule. — To  the  inner  diameter  at  AB  add  the  thickness, 
then  multiply  by  3.1416  to  obtain  the  circumference,  and 
multiply  this  product  by  the  height  at  BC,  and  again  by 
the  thickness  for  the  total  cubic  inches,  which,  if  .multi- 
plied by  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch,  will  give  the  weight  in 
pounds. 

Example. — Required  the  weight  of  a  spherical  pan 
which  is  an  exact  half-sphere  (like  Fig.  35).  The  inside 
diameter  at  AB  to  be  72  inches  and  the  thickness  2 
inches. 


CASTINGS.  Ill 

OPERATION. 

Inside  diameter 72 

Thickness  added 2 

74 
Multiplier  for  circumference 3.1  4 1 6 


2  3  2.4  7  8  4 
Fulldepthat  DC 38 

18598272 
6974352 


8834.1792 
Thickness. .  2 


Total  cubic  inches  1  7  6  6  8.3  5  8  4 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch   .26 


1060101 504 
353367168 

Weight  in  pounds 4  5  9  3.7  7  3  1  8  4,  ans. 

Jr  nearly  4594  pounds. 

Any  added  depth  to  the  body  of  such  a  pan  would 
simply  increase  the  multiplier  for  depth;  for  instance,  if 
22  inches  were  added,  as  indicated  by  the  broken  lines  at 
AB,  the  full  depth  would  be  then  increased  to  5  feet,  and 
60  inches  would  be  the  multiplier,  instead  of  38,  as  in  the 
example. 

TO  FItfD  THE  WEIGHT  OF   BALLS. 

Multiply  the  cube  of  the  diameter  by  .5236  and  the 
product  will  be  the  solidity,  or  cubic  inches  contained  in 


112  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  figure,  which,  if  multiplied  by  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
inch,  will  give  the  weight  in  pounds. 

The  cube  of  12  inches  diameter  would  be  12  inches 
multiplied  by  12  inches,  the  product  of  which  is  144  square 
inches;  these  again  multiplied  by  12  inches  produce  1728 
cubic  inches,  which  is  the  number  of  cubic  inches  con- 
tained in  a  cubic  foot. 

Note. — Fig.  36  will  help  to  a  full  understanding  of  the 
cube. 

Example. — Required  the  weight  of  a  cast-iron  ball  12 
inches  diameter. 

OPERATION. 

Ball's  diameter 12 

12 

144 
12 

Cube  of  ball's  diameter 1728 

Multiplier  for  solidity 5236 

10368 
5184 
3456 

8640 


Cubic  inches  in  ball 9  0  4.7  8  0  8 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch .26 

54286848 
18095616 


Weight  of  a  ball  in  cast  iron 2  3  5.2  4  3  0  0  8 

So  that  the  weight  of  a  cast-iron  ball  12  inches  diameter  is 
nearly  235£  Ibs. 

Should  a  lead  ball  of  the  same  diameter  be  required, 
find  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  lead  in  the  table,  and 
use  that  for  a  multiplier  in  the  place  of  .26,  as  for  cast 
iron;  as  follows: 


CASTINGS.  113 

OPERATION. 

Cubic  inches  in  ball 9  0  4.7  8 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch,  lead 41 

90478 
361912 


Weight  in  pounds,  lead 3  7  0.9  5  9  8,  an?. 

Showing  that  a  lead  ball  12  inches  diameter  weighs  371 
pounds,  nearly. 

The  weight  of  cast-iron  lalls  may  be  determined  by 
multiplying  the  cube  of  the  ball's  diameter  by  .137,  as 
follows: 

12 
12 

144 
12 

Cube 1728 

Multiplier,  cast  iron  only 137 


12096 
5184 
1728 

Weight 2  3  6.7  3  6,  am: 

Or  very  nearly  as  before. 

PERCENTAGE   IN   THE   FOUNDRY. 

Without  some  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  percentage  it  is 
hardly  possible  for  any  founder  to  mix  cast  iron  with  the 
view  of  obtaining  a  certain  amount  of  any  or  all  of  the 
elements  therein  contained. 

Supposing  we  wish  to  ascertain  how  much  silicon  enters 
into  any  mixture,  we  must  by  chemical  analysis  find  out 
just  how  much  of  that  element  is  contained  in  each  of  the 


114  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

brands  of  iron  that  constitute  the  mixture,  and  according 
to  the  percentage  found  in  the  brands  used  so  will  the 
total  percentage  of  silicon  be. 

That  this  may  be  made  as  easy  of  accomplishment  as 
possible,  I  have  chosen  for  the  purpose  of  illustration  a  few 
of  the  rules  in  percentage  which  bear  directly  upon  this  and 
kindred  subjects. 

Let  us  suppose  that  in  a  charge  of  6000  pounds  we  have 
four  different  kinds  of  iron,  as  follows : 

Sloss 3000,  contains  by  chemical  analysis  3.35$  silicon 

Scrap  ....2000,          "  "  "         1.5 

Macungie.  750,          "  "  "        1.82        " 

Crozier  . . .  250,         "  "  "        1.14 


Total,      6000 

Required  the  total  percentage  of  silicon  contained  in 
the  whole  charge. 

I  put  it  this  way  so  that  some  of  the  questions  may  be 
used  as  examples,  and  serve  the  double  purpose  of  ex- 
plaining the  rules  and  solving  the  problem  before  us. 

Percentage  is  a  method  of  computing  by  means  of 
a  fraction  whose  denominator  is  100. 

The  term  per  cent  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  Latin  per 
centum,  which  signifies  by  the  hundred. 

The  rate  per  cent  is  the  number  of  hundredths.  Thus, 
8  per  cent  is  eight  hundredths,  and  may  be  expressed  Tf  F, 
or  .08,  or  8#. 

Per  cent  is  simply  the  proportion  of  a  hundred,  and  is 
not  any  of  the  denominations  of  Federal  money;  10  per 
cent  is  not  10  cents,  nor  lOxlollars,  but  -f-£Q ;  10  per  cent 
of  $50  =  $5;  10  per  cent  of  85  tons  is  8£  tons. 

CASE  1. — To  find  the  percentage  of  any  number  or 
quantity,  the  rate  per  cent  being  given. 

Rule. — Multiply  the  given  number  by  the  rate  per  cent 
and  divide  by  100,  viz.,  point  off  two  decimals. 


CASTINGS. 


116 


Examples.—  (I)  What  is  8$  of  640  pounds  ? 
Operation.—  MO  X  8  =  5120  -4-  100  =  51.20  Ibs.     8 
640  =  T§T  of  640  =  YfrTr0  =  51.20,  ans. 

(2)  What  is  50$  of  3.35  ?     (3)  What  is  33^  of  1.5  ? 


of 


3.35 
50 

L  0  0)1  6  7.5  0  0(1.6  7  5,  ans. 
100 


675 

600 

750 
700 

500 
500 

(4)  What  is  12  J0  of  1.82  ?     (5)  What  is 
1.8  2  1.1  4 


1.5 


5 

45 
45 

1  0  0)5  0.0(.5 
500 


of  1.14? 


91 
2184 

100)22.7500(.2275,ans. 
200 


275 
200 

750 

700 


500 
500 


19 
456 

1  0  0)4.7  5  0  0(.4  7  5,  ans. 
400 

750 
700 


500 


DIESFL 


PROPERTY  OF 


116  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

CASE  2. — To  find  what  rate  per  cent  one  number  is  of 
another. 

Rule. — Annex  two  ciphers  to  the  percentage,  and  divide 
by  the  number  on  which  the  percentage  is  reckoned. 

Example. — (6)  What  per  cent  of  40  tons  is  8  tons  ? 

800  -^  40  =  20.     8  =  -^  of  40;  ^  of  100  =  20. 

(7)  What  per  cent  of  6000  Ibs.  is  3000  Ibs.  ?     (Sloss.) 
6000)3000.00(.50,ans. 
30000 


00000 

(8)  What  per  cent  of  6000  Ibs.  is  2000  Ibs.  ?     (Scrap.) 
6000)2000.00(.33J,ans. 
18000 


20000 
18000 

2000 

(9)  What  per  cent  of  6000  Ibs.  is  750  Ibs.  ?    (Macungie.) 
6  0  0  0)7  5  0.0  0(.l  2  j  =  1  2  #,  ans. 
6000 


15000 
12000 


3000 

(10)  What  per  cent  of  6000  Ibs.  is  250  Ibs.  ?     (Crozier.) 
6  00  0)2  5  0.0  0(.0  4£,  ans. 
24000 


1000 

CASE  3. — To  find  a  number  when  the  value  of  a  certain 
per  cent  is  known. 

Rule. — Annex  two  ciphers  to  the  percentage  and  divide 
by  the  rate  per  cent. 


CASTINGS.  117 

Example. — (11)  42  is  25  per  cent  of  how  many  pounds 
of  iron  ? 

2  5)4  2  0  0(1  6  8  Ibs.,  ans.     Or,  4200-^25  =  16  8,  ans. 
25 

170 
150 

200 
200 

CASE  4. — To  find  what  number  is  a  certain  per  cent 
more  or  less  than  a  given  number. 

Rule. — When  the  given  number  is  more  than  required 
number,  annex  two  ciphers  to  the  given  number  and  divide 
by  100,  plus  the  rate  per  cent. 

When  the  given  number  is  less  than  the  required  num- 
ber, annex  two  ciphers  to  the  given  number  and  divide  by 
100  less  the  rate  per  cent. 

(12)  What  amount  of  gold  at  a  premium  of  25  per  cent 
can  I  buy  for  $720  in  currency  ? 

100  +  25  =  12  5)7  2000(5  7  6.  Ans.  $5  7  6. 
625 

950 


750 

750 

(13)  Purchased  pig  iron  and  sold  it  for  $1680,  thereby 
losing  20  per  cent.     What  did  the  pig  iron  cost  ? 

100  =  20  =  80)168000(2100.     Ans.     $2100. 
160 

80 
80 


118  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

A  careful  examination  of  these  rules  and  examples  will 
show  that  by  their  aid  we  have  solved  the  problem  asked 
at  the  outset,  for,  as  shown  in  Case  2,  Examples  7.  8,  9, 
and  10,  50  per  cent  of  the  charge  is  sloss,  33  J  per  cent 
scrap,  12J  per  cent  macungie,  and  4J  per  cent  crozier. 

Now,  sloss  contains  3.35  per  cent  of  silicon,  and  as  we  are 
using  .50  per  cent  of  this  iron  in  the  charge,  we  must  know 
what  that  percentage  amounts  to.  By  referring  to  Case  1 
we  find  the  rule  for  ascertaining  this:  50  per  cent  of  3.35 
is  seen  to  be  1.675$,  as  per  Example  2,  Case  1. 

Scrap  contains  1.5  per  cent  silicon,  33.4  per  cent  of  which 
is  .5  per  cent,  as  per  Example  3,  Case  1. 

Macungie  contains  1.82  per  cent  silicon,  12J  per  cent  of 
which  is  .2275$,  as  per  Example  4,  Case  1. 

Crozier  contains  1.14  per  cent  silicon,  4£  per  cent  of 
which  is  .0475$,  as  per  Example  5,  Case  1. 

These  items  collected  in  the  form  of  a  convenient  table 
show  that  the  whole  mixture  contains  2.45  per  cent,  or 
nearly  2£  per  cent,  of  silicon,  as  follows : 

CHARGE  OF  6000  POUNDS. 

Sloss 3000  =  50*  of  charge,  contains  3.35*  of  silicon,  50£  of  which  is  1 .6750 

Scrap 2000  =  3:^         "  "         1.502    "  33J*         "      "    .5 

Macungie...    750  =  14**         "  "         1.84*    "  124*         "     "    .2275 

Crozier 250=   4£*         ••  "         1.14*    "  4tf         "      "    .0475 

6000      1.00  Total  silicon,    2.4500 

EXPLANATION"  OF  THE  TABLE  OF  WEIGHTS,  STRENGTH, 
MELTING  -  POINTS,  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  ETC.,  OF 
METALS,  INCLUDING  THE  CHIEF  CHARACTERISTICS 
OF  USEFUL  MINERALS  AND  WOODS. 

A  vast  amount  of  useful  information  may  be  obtained 
from  this  table  if  it  be  properly  understood. 

The  first  in  the  table  contains  a  long  list  of  metals, 
minerals,  and  woods  which  are  in  constant  use,  and  as 
quite  a  large  number  of  these  are  in  great  demand  in  the 


CASTINGS. 


119 


Substances. 

Weight  of  a  Cubic  Inch, 
in  Pounds. 

Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot, 
in  Pounds. 

II 
£2 

°5 

S* 

J  si** 

P 

£§ 
oo 

af. 
•=§•? 

=  02  0 

jl! 

§£ 
oo 

&§" 

»  i 

»*t 

^ 

•5-5  § 
|£g 

Meltiner-pojnts  of  Sol- 
ids, in  Degrees. 

£2-g 

•eS 
P«S 

Wf 

i£  ^  i 
02      ^  st 

*ss 

pll1 

METALS. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Deg. 

Lbs. 

Iron  cast,  pig  

260 

440 

2000G 

203 

450 

37  5 

3  1° 

2  45 

3477 

25  COO 

264 

455 

30  000 

•J81 

486 

40  5 

3  33 

2  61 

3  9s!! 

CO  (00 

Steel                               .  . 

283 

490 

40  8 

3  40 

2  67 

2501 

'JO  (00 

696 

1°10 

2  587 

20  000 

Silver  cast                    ..   .. 

378 

0.51 

54  6 

1,2.50 

40000 

Copper,  cast  

.317 

540 

47  5 

3  81 

2.99 

2,550 

20000 

Copper  drawn 

3:21 

5.5.5 

60,000 

Tin    block  

.263 

455 

38 

..420 

4000 

Zinc  ca«t                    

248 

437 

36  6 

!)  05 

2  40 

741 

2  500 

Zinc  rolled 

26-'J 

440 

15000 

B'HSr?}™1™  

Brass  fine  drawn  

.282 

525 
535 

43.6 

3.63 

2.85 

1,897 

28,000 
80000 

Lead   cast 

4J6 

710 

59  3 

4  94 

3  48 

617 

1,8(*0 

Lead,  rolled  

.411 

712 

25,000 

Aluminum                       

092 

160 

700 

Bronze  \  V?pperV  10  i  •  •  • 

.272 

480 

70,000 

|  Alum,  1       l  ' 
Bronze  \  g°PPer.  10  t    . 

309 

535 

42.5 

3  54 

2  78 

36.000 

1  Tin,  1           ) 
MINERALS. 
Bricks  common 

132 

225 

Glass      

ir>5 

Granite 

105 

I  000 

Limestone  

165 

500 

Sand   dry 

120 

Sund   moist  

128 

Coal  anthracite 

96 

80 

Coke 

62  5 

WOODS. 

75 

12,000 

Lancewood..        

60 

23,000 

Box 

60 

IS  000 

Cedar  

55 

1  1  ,500 

Oak 

55 

17  000 

Beech 

50 

16  000 

Mahogany  

50 

16,(00 

Birch 

50 

15,000 

Pine,  pitch      

40 

10,000 

Pine   white  

34 

Walnut   black 

40 

8000 

30 

Air  atmospheric  

07529 

62  5 

120 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Substances. 

Trans  verse  Strength  of 
Bar  1  In.  Sq.  and  1  Ft. 
in  Length,  Weightsus- 
pended  on  One  End. 

o2£ 

.=  •00 

&8u 
§§•3* 
S«,i 

!!*! 

"7  !•  3  V 

i>  E.  - 
?>  OH* 
^ 

Torsion. 

Relative  Strength  to 
resist  Torsion,  Lead 
being  1. 

Resilience  or  Tough- 
ness. 

Specific  Gravity 

METALS. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

L  s. 

Lbs. 

500 

100  000 

400 

15 

200 

Iron,  cast,'  tough  

6(10 
700 

1  -,'0.000 
125  000 

5>0 
700 

9 

25 

50 

.2J7 
308 

Iron   wrought     

900 

50.000 

750 

10.1 

20  000 

7S8 

Steel                                      

1  500 

125  000 

1  200 

16.6 

15  OoO 

833 

Gold  cast    

35.000 

19  258 

Silver  cast      .       

500 

10  474 

100  000 

350 

4  3 

200 

8  788 

Copper  drawn  

220 

750 

40  340 

8  830 

Tin   block 

50 

15  500 

60 

1  4 

2  500 

7  291 

Zinc  cast                 

30 

30 

500 

(i  861 

200 

164  800 

200 

7  101 

Brass  4  g:'PPer'  J  !•  Yellow.  . 

4  6 

4  000 

7  820 

^  1  Zinc.       1  j 

165  000 

1  000 

15.000 

20 

7  000 

20 

1 

11  352 

30 

30 

11  388 

2  500 

Bronze  4  9?pper;  10  (•  .  .  - 

135  000 

400 

7  680 

>B   )  Alum.  1       j 
Bronze  h£>pper'  10  {•  .  .  . 

500 

5 

8  000 

8  560 

c   |  Tin,  1           J 
MINERALS. 
Bricks  common 

7 

2  500 

2  112 

Gla<s               

2  487 

Granite 

25 

10  000 

980 

2  654 

Limestone  

40 

6  000 

100 

2  654 

Sand   dry                

2  f  ~fl 

Coal  anthracite  

1   ")36 

Coal   bituminous         

1  2^0 

Coke  

1  000 

WOODS. 
Lignum  vitse 

160 

10  000 

150 

1  °00 

Lnncewood      

150 

1-20 

flfiO 

Box 

130 

10  000 

125 

%0 

Cedar  

100 

6  000 

100 

S80 

Oak               

150 

10  000 

140 

s-o 

Beeoh 

8  000 

110 

800 

Mah"gany  

120 

8  000 

180 

800 

Birch  
Pin^,  pitch  

130 
100 

5.000 
8  000 

(55 





.800 

(ill) 

Pine  white 

554 

Walnut,  black  

150 

8  000 

130 

.640 

Spruce.            

120 

6  000 

480 

Air  atmospheric 

00l**05 

Water,  rain  

1  000 

CASTINGS.  121 

foundry,  a  knowledge  of  their  several  natures  and  qualities 
will  always  be  serviceable. 

The  second  column  gives  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch 
of  all  the  metals  included  in  the  list,  and  serves  as  a 
multiplier  when  the  contents  of  a  casting  have  been 
reduced  to  cubic  inches:  for  instance,  a  plate  12  inches 
square,  1  inch  thick,  =  144  cubic  inches;  if  the  weight  is 
required  in  cast  iron,  find  cast  iron  in  the  first  column, 
opposite  to  which  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  is  found  to 
be  .263;  then  144  X  .263  =  37.872,  or  over  37£  pounds. 
If  such  a  casting  were  required  in  lead,  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  inch  is  stated  .41;  then  144  X  41  =  5904,  or  a  little 
over  59  pounds.  Aluminum  being  only  .092  Ib.  per  cubic 
inch,  would  show  144  X  .092  =  13.248,  or  nearly  13J 
pounds. 

The  third  column  shows  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  in 
pounds,  and  may  be  made  very  serviceable  at  times.  Sup- 
pose it  were  required  to  know  the  weight  (in  cast  iron)  of 
a  piece  3  feet  square  and  4  feet  high :  then  3x3  =  9, 
and  9  X  4  =  36,  the  number  of  cubic  feet  contained.  By 
the  table  a  cubic  foot  of  cast  iron  weighs  450  Ibs. :  then 
450  X  36  =  16200,  or  200  Ibs.  over  8  tons. 

A  cubic  foot  of  dry  sand  (as  shown)  weighs  120  Ibs., 
therefore  the  same  bulk  would  only  weigh  4320  Ibs.:  thus 
120  X  36  =  4320  Ibs.,  or  320  Ibs.  over  2  tons. 

The  fourth  column  gives  the  weight  of  a  superficial  square 
foot  1  inch  thick;  fifth,  the  weight  of  a  bar  one  inch 
square  and  one  foot  long;  and  the  sixth  being  the  weight 
of  a  bar  1  inch  diameter,  1  foot  in  length:  all  of  which  is 
very  useful  data  to  have  at  hand  when  wanted. 

MELTING-POINTS. 

This  column  gives  the  melting-points  of  the  simple  metals 
mentioned,  but  the  melting-points  of  alloys  are  invariably 
below  those  of  the  simple  metals  composing  them.  For 


122  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

instance,  1  tin  and  1  lead  melts  at  370°;  2  tin  and  1  lead 
melts  at  340°;  3  tin  and  3  lead  and  1  bismuth  at  310°;  1 
tin,  1  lead,  and  1  bismuth  at  310°.  A  still  lower  melting- 
point  is  obtained  when  5  zinc,  3  lead,  3  bismuth,  and  3 
mercury  is  used,  the  latter  alloy  being  said  to  melt  at 
122°. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH. 

The  tensile  strength  of  any  material  is  the  cohesive 
power,  or  resistance  to  separation,  by  which  it  resists  an 
attempt  to  pull  it  apart  in  the  direction  of  its  fibres  or 
particles. 

The  table  gives  results  of  tests  of  the  various  substances 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  much  higher  rates  have 
been  obtained  when  special  effort  has  been  made  with  the 
view  of  ascertaining  the  very  best  results  possible.  As  stated 
in  the  table,  the  weights  given  are  the  number  of  pounds 
required  to  pull  a  bar  one  inch  square  asunder,  or  its 
equivalent.  Instead  of  weights  being  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, however,  testing-machines  are  constructed,  which 
determine  the  strength  of  materials  with  strains  of  differ- 
ent kinds — tensile,  transverse,  torsional,  crushing,  etc. 

The  bars  made  for  this  purpose  are  usually  made  to  a 
uniform  measure  of  one  inch  square  of  sectional  area  and 
one  .foot  in  length.  To  ascertain  the  tensile  strength 
of  this  bar  it  is  gripped  tight  at  each  end  and  the  strain 
applied  until  it  breaks  or  tears  asunder;  an  index  indi- 
cates the  amount  of  strain  existing  at  the  moment  of 
rupture. 

The  ultimate  extension  of  cast  iron  is  about  the  500th 
part  of  its  length. 

TRANSVERSE   STRENGTH. 

The  breaking-weights  given  in  this  table  represent  the 
number  of  pounds  weight  required  to  break  a  bar  one  inch 


CASTINGS.  12H 

square  and  one  foot  in  length,  the  weight  suspended  on  one 
end.  This  means  that  the  weight  or  pressure  is  applied 
one  foot  distant  from  the  point  where  the  opposite  end  is 
held  fast. 

The  relative  stiffness  of  materials  to  resist  a  transverse 
strain  is  as  follows: 

Wrought  iron .     1.3        Oak 095        Elm 073 

Cast  iron 1.          Ash 089        Beech 073 

White  piue...       .1        Yellow  pine.     .087 

The  following  table  shows  how  great  a  diversity  of 
strength  may  be  given  to  the  same  sectional  area  of  cast 
iron  by  simply  changing  the  form  of  the  casting.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the  lowest  result  is  565  and  the  highest 
2652  pounds. 

Note. — A  careful  study  of  this  will  yield  good  results. 


TRANSVERSE  STRENGTH  OF  CAST-IRON  BARS,  REDUCED 
TO  THE  UNIFORM  MEASURE  OF  ONE  INCH  SQUARE 
OF  SECTIONAL  AREA,  AND  ONE  FOOT  IN  LENGTH. 
FIXED  AT  ONE  END,  WEIGHT  SUSPENDED  FROM  THE 
OTHER. 

Breaking- 
Form  of  Bar.  weight  in 

Pounds. 

Square  (see  Fig.  37) , 873 

Square,  diagonal  vertical,  Fig.  38 568 

Column,  solid,  Fig.  39 573 

Hollow  column,   greater  diameter  twice  that  of  the   lesser, 

Fig.  40 794 

Rectangular  rim,  2  in.  deep  X  I  in.  thick  j                 e 1456 

"      3        "       Xi         "       [•  Fig.  41  ] 2392 

"     4        "       X±         "        )                 ( 2652 

Equilateral  triangle,  an  edge  up,  Fig.  42 560 

"               "an  edge  down,  Fig.  43 958 

Beam  2  in.  deep  X  2  in.  wide  X  .268  thick,  Fig.  44  2068 

"       "        "        "           "           "        "      Fig.. 45 565 


124  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

CRUSHING    STRENGTH. 

What  is  meant  by  crushing  strength,  is  the  power  in- 
herent in  the  material  to  resist  a  compressive  or  pushing 
stress,  which  force  would  tend  to  shorten  it. 

While  the  effect  of  tensile  stress  is  always  to  produce 
rupture  or  separation  of  particles  in  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  strain,  that  of  crushing  or  compressive  stress  may 
be  to  cause  the  material  to  fly  into  fragments,  to  separate 
into  two  or  more  wedge-shaped  pieces  and  fly  apart,  to 
bulge,  buckle,  or  bend,  or  perhaps  to  flatten  out  and  utterly 
resist  rupture  or  separation  of  particles. 

TORSIONAL  STRENGTH. 

Torsional  strength  means  the  ability  of  the  material  to 
resist  a  twisting  or  wrenching  of  its  parts  by  the  exertion 
of  a  lateral  force  tending  to  turn  one  end,  or  part  of  it, 
along  a  longitudinal  axis,  whilst  the  other  is  held  fast  or 
turned  in  an  opposite  direction. 

The  figures  given  in  the  column  under  "torsion"  rep- 
resent the  relative  stiffness  of  the  several  substances 
mentioned. 

Hollow  cylinders  or  shafts  have  greater  torsional 
strength  than  solid  ones  containing  the  same  volume 
of  material. 

Solid  square  shafts  have  about  one-fifth  less  torsional 
strength  than  solid  cylinders  of  equal  area. 

The  torsional  strength  of  cast  steel  is  about  double  that 
of  cast  iron. 

RESILIENCE    OR    TOUGHNESS. 

The  term  resilience  is  used  to  specify  the  amount  of  work 
done  when  the  strain  just  reaches  the  corresponding  elastic 
limit.  The  table  shows  the  ultimate  resilience  of  metals  as 
tested  in  the  Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  Hoboken, 


CASTINGS.  125 

N.  J.,  and  gives  at  a  glance  the  comparative  ability  of 
metals  to  resist  forces  such  as  bending,  etc. 

The  resilience  of  phosphor-bronze  is  far  in  excess  of  the 
ordinary  bronze. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

Specific  gravity  of  any  body  is  the  proportion  which  the 
weight  of  a  certain  bulk  of  that  body  bears  to  the  same 
bulk  of  another  body  which  is  taken  as  standard. 

The  standard  for  substances,  solid  and  liquid,  is  distilled 
water  at  the  temperature  of  62°  Fahr.,  a  cubic  foot  of  which 
weighs  1000  ounces  avoirdupois,  or  62.5  pounds. 

The  specific  gravity  of  solid  bodies  is  best  measured  by 
the  hydrostatic  balance,  which  gives  the  weight  of  a 
volume  of  water  equal  in  bulk  to  the  solid,  by  which  it  is 
only  necessary  to  divide  the  weight  of  the  solid  in  air  to 
obtain  the  specific  gravity. 

A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  1000  ounces.  If  the  same 
bulk  of  another  substance,  as  for  instance  cast  iron,  is 
found  to  weigh  7.200  ounces,  its  proportional  weight  or 
specific  gravity  is  7.2. 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  is  obtained  from  the  figures 
representing  specific  gravity  or  density  by  moving  the 
decimal  point  three  figures  from  the  right,  which  -gives  the 
weight  in  ounces;  and  these  again  divided  by  16  give  the 
pounds  avoirdupois  in  a  cubic  foot;  thus  7200  •—  16  =  450 
pounds. 

Gold  is  19  and  silver  10  times  heavier  than  water,  conse- 
quently the  numbers  19.000  and  10.000  represent  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  gold  and  silver. 

The  heaviest  known  substance  is  iridium,  used  for  the 
pointing  of  gold  pens;  its  specific  gravity  is  23.000.  Car- 
bonic-acid gas,  or  choke-damp,  is  300  times  lighter  than 
water,  common  air  800,  street  gas  about  2000,  and  pure 
hydrogen,  the  lightest  of  all  substances,  12,000  times. 


126  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES. 

INCLUDING  BLOCK  AND  PLATE  METHODS  OF  MOULDING; 
GEAR-MOULDING  BY  MACHINERY,  AND  A  DESCRIP- 
TION OF  SOME  MODERN  MOULDING-MACHINES. 

THE  object  of  this  article  is  to  bring  before  the  mind  of 
the  foundryman,  in  as  brief  a  manner  as  possible,  the  pres- 
ent condition  of  the  foundry  with  regard  to  the  various 
appliances  now  in  use  for  the  production  of  castings.  Im- 
perfect as  it  may  be,  it  will,  in  some  measure  at  least,  give 
at  a  glance  some  idea  of  the  evolution  which  has  been  grad- 
ually taking  place  around  us  in  the  past,  and  may  serve 
to  incite  the  minds  of  some  to  still  further  efforts  in  the 
direction  of  improved  foundry  appliances. 

The  several  moulding-machines,  as  we  see  them  to-day, 
have  not  sprung  into  existence  all  at  once.  The  process  of 
their  development  has  been  a  gradual  one;  and  not  until 
inventors  were  able  to  grasp  some,  if  not  all,  of  the  chief 
requirements  for  producing  a  well-finished  and  trustworthy 
mould  did  any  real  success  attend  their  efforts,  even  in  the 
inferior  class  of  work  to  which  the  limited  capacity  of  their 
machines  has  hitherto  confined  them. 

Before  entering  upon  the  subject  of  moulding-machines 
proper,  it  will  be  of  interest  to  take  a  retrospect  of  the 
foundry  appliances  generally,  past  and  present;  by  which 
means  we  shall  be  better  able  to  judge,  not  only  just  how 
much  advancement  we  have  made,  but  also  to  trace  almost 
from  their  inception  the  growth  of  the  present  mechanical 
appliances  for  moulding. 

The  difference  between  past  methods  in  moulding  as  com- 
pared with  the  present  is  almost  as  great  as  that  of  smelt- 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES. 


127 


ing  the  ore,  which  latter  can  only  be  appreciably  under- 
stood when  we  compare  our  methods  at  present  with  some 
of  those  still  in  use  in  semi-civilized  countries.  Fig.  46 
represents  a  blast-furnace  of  the  Kols,  a  tribe  of  iron-smelt- 
ers of  Lower  Bengal  and  Orissa.  The  men  are  nomads,  going 
from  place  to  place  as  the  abundance  of  ore  and  wood  may 


Fig.  46. 


prompt  them.  The  charcoal  in  the  furnace  being  well 
ignited,  ore  is  fed  in  alternately  with  charcoal,  the  fuel 
resting  on  the  inclined  tray  so  as  to  be  readily  raked  in.  As 
the  metal  sinks  to  the  bottom,  slag  runs  off  at  an  aperture 
above  the  basin,  which  is  occupied  by  a  viscid  mass  of  iron. 
The  blowers  are  two  boxes  with  skin  covers,  which  are  al- 
ternately depressed  by  the  feet  and  raised  by  the  spring 
poles.  Each  skin  cover  has  a  hole  in  the  middle,  which  is 
stopped  by  the  heel  as  the  weight  of  the  person  is  thrown 
upon  it,  and  is  left  open  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  foot  as 
the  cover  is  raised.  Variously  modified  iu  detail  and  in- 


128  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

creased  in  size,  these  simple  furnaces  are  to  be  found  in 
several  parts  of  Europe  at  the  present  time. 

Compare  the  above  with  some  of  the  remarkable  systems 
of  hot-blast  smelting  now  in  vogue,  as  described  in  late 
works  on  metallurgy, and  the  change  seems  truly  startling; 
yet  the  principle  is  the  same  in  both  cases  almost,  the 
main  difference  being  in  the  kind  of  blowing-engine  used 
and  the  magnitude  of  the  operations. 

CRANES. 

In  nothing  does  the  spirit  of  improvement  manifest  itself 
more  than  in  the  choice  of  cranes  for  foundry  purposes : 
where  once  the  slow  and  ponderous  wood  cranes  stood,  are 
now  to  be  seen  in  some  places  elegant  structures  of  steel 
or  iron,  whose  every  movement  is  controlled  with  a  degree 
of  accuracy  unthought  of  by  our  predecessors,  and  com- 
paratively unknown  to  many  around  us  at  this  time.  With 
the  advent  of  electricity  as  a  motive  power,  backed  by  a 
growing  desire  on  the  part  of  founders  to  apply  this  won- 
drous force  to  existing  structures  (something  very  easy  of 
accomplishment),  our  foundries  are  assuming  a  method 
which,  to  those  accustomed  only  to  the  old  regime,  seems 
almost  unreal.  When  large  bodies  are  being  lifted  they 
seem  to  shoot  upwards  as  if  propelled  by  magic,  and  lighter 
ones,  such  as  parts  of  moulds,  etc.,  are  closed  together  with 
a  degree  of  precision  unattainable  by  the  clumsy  structures 
which  these  more  effective  engines  have  displaced.  No 
noise,  no  rushing  through  the  shop  for  a  spare  crank  to 
supply  the  place  of  the  one  just  broken  by  as  many  hands 
as  could  crowd  around  it,  no  anxiety  of  foreman  or  men, 
all  proceeding  with  a  naturalness  born  only  of  perfection, 
and  all  this  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  has  just  dawned  upon 
the  minds  of  founders  that  the  foundry  can  be  made  more 
productive  if  sufficient  attention  is  only  given  to  its  needs 
and  requirements. 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES.  129 

The  business  of  cranes  has  fortunately  been  taken  out  of 
the  hands  of  the  amateur  crane-builders  that  infest  almost 
every  firm  which  boasts  of  owning  a  foundry,  and  this  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  effectually  bar  out  every  attempt  on 
their  part  to  ever  again  inflict  one  of  their  monstrosities  on 
a  patient  and  uncomplaining  shopful  of  moulders.  If  it 
were  only  for  the  latter  great  benefit,  we  have  reason  to 
bless  the  day  when  the  specialist  in  the  manufacture  of 
cranes  was  able  to  give  us  the  perfection  we  have  attempted 
to  describe  for  less  money  than  one  of  the  old  abortions 
would  cost  the  unsuspecting  victim  of  the  once  famous, 
but  now  almost  defunct,  '  handy  man  about  shop/ 

It  is  a  good  sign  to  notice  the  almost  universal  adoption 
of  these  lately  invented  appliances  for  reaching  every  nook 
and  corner  of  the  foundry  with  some  adequate  means  for 
lifting  objects  hitherto  lifted  by  hand  at  great  risk  to  all 
concerned.  The  pneumatic  and  steam  hydraulic  cranes, 
etc.,  suitable  for  such  purposes  are  now  to  be  obtained  at  a 
comparatively  trifling  cost.  From  the  number  of  such  ap- 
pliances now  in  use,  there  is  every  indication  that  the  con- 
venience and  general  welfare  of  the  employe  is  receiving 
attention  to  which  he  has  been  hitherto  unaccustomed. 

Another  labor-saving  device  for  facilitating  the  rapid 
handling  of  large  quantities  of  molten  iron  is  becoming 
very  popular  in  many  of  our  large  architectural,  car,  and 
stove  shops,  consisting  of  an  overhead  trolley  system  direct 
from  the  cupola  to  all  parts  of  the  shop,  one  man  being 
able  to  pilot  1000  pounds  of  iron  direct  to  the  floor,  and 
serve  each  hand-ladle  as  fast  as  presented,  the  latter  opera- 
tion being  made  very  simple  arid  clean  by  a  hook  on  the 
band  of  the  supply  ladle,  on  which  the  moulder  can  rest  his 
ladle  whilst  it  is  being  filled,  a  suitable  eye  on  the  band  of 
the  hand  ladle  being  provided  for  that  purpose. 


130 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


TESTING-MACHINES. 

The  rapidly  increasing  popularity  of  the  testing-machine 
in  the  foundry  is  the  sure  indication  of  a  desire  on  the  part 
of  founders  for  a  more  correct  and  satisfactory  means  of 
knowing  just  what  iron  they  are  using;  the  rule-of-thumb, 
as  exemplified  by  the  antiquated  method  of  testing  by 
fracture  alone,  is  being  fast  relegated  to  the  rear,  its  place 
being  taken  by  the  more  positive  means  of  the  testing-ma- 
chine and  crucible. 


£n*Hcan  Machinitt 


Fig.  47. 


The  machine  shown  in  Fig.  47  is  designed  for  testing  the 
tensile  strength  of  metals;  the  rod  A;  to  be  tested, is  made 
to  one  square  inch  of  section,  and  is  held  between  clamps 
attached,  respectively,  to  levers  B  and  G.  The  lever  B  is 
acted  on  by  a  worm-wheel  C,  and  worm  operated  by  a  hand- 
wheel  F,  bringing  the  tensile  strain  upon  the  scale-beam 
levers  G,  H,  and  /;  to  the  long  arm  of  the  latter  weights  D 
are  applied  until  the  bar  A  is  ruptured,  or  the  required 
testing  strain  is  reached.  E  is  a  counterbalance  weight  for 
the  levers  G,  H,  I. 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES. 


131 


How  these  machines  are  applied  for  obtaining  a  trans- 
verse test  will  be  seen  at  once  by  consulting  Fig.  48,  which 
is  self-explanatory. 


Fig.  48. 
TRACKS  AXD   TRUCKS. 

Where  the  means  for  transmitting  moulds,  cores,  cast- 
ings, and  all  other  materials  are  lacking  overhead,  espe- 
cially in  large  foundries  which  have  assumed  their  present 
magnitude,  section  after  section,  by  the  process  of  building 
'  something  temporarily '  for  the  present,  as  their  business 
increased  from  time  to  time,  there  is  now  a  very  good  sub- 
stitute in  a  system  of  well-kept  tracks  with  switches  in 
every  available  direction.  Specialists  in  this  line  now 
manufacture  trucks  that  will  turn  in  a  12-foot  radius  with 
ease,  with  loads  of  three  tons  or  more,  thus  taking  up  little, 
if  any,  more  room  than  would  be  required  for  turntables, 
the  latter  objectionable  feature  being  by  this  means  effectu- 
ally dispensed  with.  The  transmission  of  cores  from  the 
oven  to  their  respective  places,  sand  from  the  bins  outside, 


132  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

and  molten  iron  from  the  cupola  to  every  part  of  such  a 
shop  may  with  such  an  arrangement  be  accomplished  with 
marvellous  facility,  and  with  an  outlay  for  labor  that  is  in- 
finitesimal compared  with  lugging  everything  by  hand. 

Fig.  49  shows  how  admirably  the  track  system  is  adapted 
to  a  number  of  shops  collected  together,  as  above  described. 
As  will  be  seen,  connections  for  both  supply  and  delivery 
are  well  provided  for;  the  tracks  were  so  arranged  that  a 
steam-crane  lifted  the  iron  from  the  cupolas  onto  the  trucks 
with  the  least  delay  imaginable,  and  every  part  of  these 
straggling  places  brought  into  intimate  relation  with  the 
cupola  by  said  means. 

CONVEYERS. 

May  we  not  hope  that  before  long  the  laborious  and  by 
no  means  desirable  mode  of  wheeling  in  barrows  all  the 
material  used  by  the  sand  and  loam  mixer,  etc.,  will  be 
supplanted  by  one  or  other  of  the  much-to-be-admired  sys- 
tems of  conveying  which  are  becoming  so  common  almost 
everywhere,  except  in  the  foundry  ?  These  means  are  pre- 
eminently adapted  for  foundry  purposes,  inasmuch  as  every- 
thing could  then  be  hauled  to  its  destination  clear  of  the 
foundry  floor  altogether.  Mines,  mills,  and  quarries  are 
duly  supplied  with  fast  or  slow  speed  elevators  and  con- 
veyeft  with  a  perfect  discharge;  grain  is  handled  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  leave  no  trailings  behind,  and  different  grades 
handled  by  the  same  conveyer  (something  very  suggestive 
of  its  adaptability  to  foundry  use) ;  clay  at  the  brick-yards, 
coal  at  the  wharves  and  elsewhere,  tanneries,  tile  and  stone 
yards,  have  these  splendid  appliances  in  full  swing;  but,  as 
usual,  the  foundry  is  last  in  the  race. 

ELEVATORS  TO    CUPOLA   SCAFFOLD. 

Looking  at  the  very  excellent  arrangements  for  elevating 
material  to  the  charging  platform  at  some  of  our  foundries. 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES. 


133 


134  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

one  is  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  improvements  began 
first  at  the  outside,  and  only  very  slowly  found  their  way 
into  the  foundry  proper.  However,  it  is  a  satisfaction  to 
know  that  the  interior  has  at  last  been  reached,  and  every 
part  is  now  receiving  its  due  share  of  attention  in  all  well- 
regulated  shops.  The  advent  of  the  ordinary  elevator  made 
it  possible  to  banish  forever  that  slavish  and  expensive 
mode  of  carrying  by  hand  all  the  iron  and  fuel  to  the  scaf- 
fold; but  it  is  evident  that  very  many  cling  tenaciously  to 
these  time-honored  notions,  otherwise  we  should  see  some 
scheme  invented,  even  in  the  meanest  places,  by  which 
material  could  be  handled  more  sensibly  as  well  as  profit- 
ably. 

The  common  freight  elevator  may  be  very  readily  adapted 
to  almost  any  foundry,  and  this  contrivance  owing  to  the 
lively  competition  of  makers,  can  be  furnished  at  a  remark- 
ably low  cost.  The  author  has  had  an  every-day  experience 
of  75  tons  of  melted  iron  per  day  at  a  foundry  where  both 
iron  and  fuel,  great  as  was  the  quantity,  was  lifted  from  the 
foundry  floor  to  one  end  of  the  scaffold  in  iron  cages  hold- 
ing about  five  tons  of  iron,  and  deposited  on  a  truck  which, 
by  means  of  a  suitable  track,  was  conveyed  to  each  of  the 
three  cupolas  in  use,  respectively.  The  crane  used  for  this 
purpose  was  an  ordinary  jib  with  a  reversing  engine  behind  ; 
and  whilst  it  may  appear  a  somewhat  rude  method  corn- 
pared  with  the  best  practice  of  the  day,  it  was  very  effec- 
tive. 

CUPOLA   SCALES. 

It  is  a  great  saving  of  time,  as  well  as  an  aid  to  correct- 
ness, to  provide  a  scale  with  several  beams  and  poises,  so 
that  a  truck  may  be  at  once  filled  with  the  several  quanti- 
ties of  different  irons  which  go  to  make  up  a  charge.  This 
allows  the  proportional  quantities  to  be  collected  ou  the 
truck  instead  of  obliging  them  to  be  carried  separately  to  the 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES.  135 

cupola.  The  iron  truck  at  Fig.  50  is  shown  on  a  section  of 
railway  upon  the  scale-platform;  the  beams  are  concealed, 
but  are  supposed  to  be  provided  with  indicators,  which  pass 
through  the  top  of  the  beam-box.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
this  method  originated  at  the  car-wheel  foundries,  where 
the  cupola  scaffold  is  in  many  instances  connected  with 
the  yard  direct  by  a  line  of  railway  on  a  constructed  in- 
cline. It  is  even  easier  to  adopt  this  scheme  where  the 


Fig,  50. 

truck  can  be  run  from  the  scale  to  the  elevator  platform 
on  the  level,  and  not  a  few  of  our  wide-awake  firms  have 
adopted  the  scheme. 

AND   RIDDLES. 

The  sand  riddle  shown  at  Fig.  51  is  undoubtedly  the  re- 
sult of  an  evolutionary  process  easily  traceable  through  all 
its  several  stages  or  periods:  at  first  the  tiresome  and  back- 
breaking  standing  with  riddle  in  hand  to  receive  shovelful 
after  shovelful  of  sand  from  an  associate,  to  be  either  freed 
from  scraps  or  more  effectually  mixed  and  tempered;  then 
the  stick  with  a  nail  inserted  at  each  end,  one  of  which  was 
to  thrust  into  the  floor  to  prevent  slipping,  the  other  to 


136 


THE  IRON  FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


protrude  through  one  of  the  meshes  at  the  front  of  the 
riddle,  thus  relieving  the  operator  of  nearly  one  half  the 
load  as  he  jerked  his  riddle  back  and  forth ;  and  again  the 
mortar-mixer's  screen  brought  into  -the  foundry, — perhaps 
surreptitiously  from  some  new  building  in  course  of  erec- 
tion near  by. 

Finally,  the  machine  as  intimated,  which  is  supposed  to 
give  a  combination  of  all  the  motions  incident  to  ordinary 
riddling,  saving  at  least  half  the  labor,  and  the  time  also. 
Whilst  this  figure  serves  to  show  a  very  popular  power 
riddle  now  in  use  at  many  foundries,  it  by  no  means  covers 


Fig.  51. 

the  field  of  invention  for  this  end.  A  very  good  one  by 
J.  Evans  &  Co.,  Manchester,  Eng.,  hooks  the  tray  into 
slings  which  depend  from  any  convenient  support  above  by 
means  of  straps  bolted  on  the  frame.  The  tray  is  formed 
of  a  piece  of  -f$"  plate  iron,  bent  round  to  form  three  sides 
of  a  rectangle,  the  fourth  side  being  left  open.  A  series  of 
half-inch  bars  pass  across  the  frame,  the  action  of  the  up- 
permost bars  being  to  assist  in  breaking  up  the  large  lumps 
of  sand.  The  sieves,  which  are  interchangeable,  are  laid 
over  the  lower  bars.  The  oscillating  motion  is  imparted  to 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES.  137 

the  frame  from  a  belt-pulley,  which  drives  a  three-toothed 
cam  pinion:  these  teeth  thrusting  alternately  the  pins 
in  the  slotted  piece  attached  to  the  bar  which  actuates  the 
frame,  communicate  a  rapid  jarring  to -and -fro  mouou 
thereto.  The  fine  sand  falls  through  the  sieve  into  a  bin 
below,  and  the  unbroken  lumps  pass  on  and  fall  out  at  the 
open  end. 

A  revolving  screen,  lately  introduced  in  some  of  our 
leading  shops,  is  no  doubt  the  most  effective  machine  yet 
seen  for  mixing  heavy  piles  of  sand,  and  promises  to  super- 
sede all  other  contrivances  yet  invented  for  that  purpose. 


CLEANSING    MILL. 

The  simple  tumbling-barrel  was  the  first  attempt  made 
to  supersede  the  old  method  of  cleaning  small  castings  with 
old  Cles  and  pieces  of  sandstone  or  emery.  How  well  some 
of  us  can  remember  the  army  of  little  boys  and  old  men 
employed  for  this  purpose  at  all  such  firms  as  manufac- 
tured large  quantities  of  small  work.  This  simple  machine, 
like  all  others  since  introduced,  cleans  and  polishes  cast- 
ings by  attrition,  and  consists  of  a  cylindric  or  barrel- 
shaped  vessel,  composed  of  perforated  slabs  bolted  to  the 
two  ends,  having  a  side  door  for  the  introduction  of  the 
work,  and  mounted  on  an  axis  so  as  to  be  revolved  by  a 
wheel  or  pulley.  Very  many  improved  ones  are  now  in 
use,  but  all  aim  at  the  one  object  of  cleansing  by  the  intro- 
duction, along  with  the  castings,  of  slag  or  cinder,  which, 
as  it  breaks  up  by  constant  abrasion  with  the  castings, 
cleans  the  latter  from  all  adhering  sand,  which  escapes 
through  the  perforations,  leaving  the  castings  clean  within 
the  barrel.  Some  are  now  provided  with  an  exhaust  ap- 
paratus for  conveying  away  the  dust, — a  very  desirable 
acquisition,  it  must  be  said, — are  friction-geared,  and  pro- 
vided with  hand-wheels  for  stopping  and  starting.  Others 


138 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


again  are  revolved  on  chilled  truck- wheels,  the  heads  hav- 
ing guides  turned  thereon  for  the  purpose,  thus  doing  away 
with  axis  on  the  head  altogether.  A  great  saving  of  time 
is  effected  when  two  barrels  are  employed,  as  in  this  case 
one  may  be  kept  running  whilst  the  other  is  being  loaded 
or  unloaded. 


LOAM-MILL. 

Another  of  the  evidences  of  a  growth  in  the  desire  for 
best  methods  is  the  adoption  of  the  mill  for  grinding  loam. 


Fig.  52. 

where  such  a  commodity  is  in  constant  demand.  Old  as 
this  contrivance  is,  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact  that  in  many 
foundries  they  are  still  pounding  away  on  the  chopping, 
bench,  apparently  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  such  a 
machine;  others  claim  that  hand-made  loam  is  the  best, 
but  this  cannot  be  any  other  than  a  wild  statement,  having 
no  ground  in  fact.  With  such  a  mill  as  is  shown  at  Fig. 
52,  loam  may  be  ground  to  any  consistency  desired,  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  clay  and  manure  and  the  nature  of 
the  sand  used. 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES. 


139 


The  machines  that  are  sometimes  erected  for  this  pur- 
pose are  not  suitable,  being  simply  a  copy  of  those  used  in 
cement  and  other  factories  ;  one  chief  objection  to  most  of 
them  is  the  ou trigging  required  for  carrying  the  gearing, 
which  is  usually  on  the  top.  The  one  shown  at  Fig.  52  is 
the  best  mill  for  the  foundry,  being  provided  with  a  chute 
through  which  the  loam  or  clay-wash  may  escape  when  it 
has  been  sufficiently  ground,  and  its  usefulness  may  be 
still  further  enhanced  by  a  system  of  hoppers  overhead  for 
the  introduction  of  the  sand,  clay,  etc. 


MOTJLDEKS'   CLAMPS. 

Even  the  ordinary  light-work  moulders'  clamp  receives 
some  attention  during  this  age  of  improvement :  amongst 
many  other  excellent  contrivances  may  be  classed  the  ones 
seen  at  Figs.  53  and  54,  the  latter,  although  ingenious  and 


Fig.  53. 

sure,  might  be  objected  to  on  account  of  the  protruding 
handle,  but  its  other  acceptable  features  will,  in  many  in- 
stances, compensate  for  that.  The  dilapidated  condition 
of  the  top  edges  of  wooden  flasks,  caused  by  that  outlandish 
mode  of  pinching  now  so  prevalent,  as  well  as  the  many 


140  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

failures  from  jarring  of  iron  copes  whilst  driving  wedges, 
ought  to  impel  every  founder  to  invent  something  more 
elegant  and  satisfactory  than  are  the  crude  devices  invari- 
ably practised.  In  nothing  does  the  spirit  of  improvement 
seem  so  backward  as  is  the  case  in  this  particular,  almost 
everywhere. 

GEAEED   LADLES. 

There  is  every  evidence  of  shiftlessness  and  culpable 
neglect  when,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  we  see  a  dozen  men 
struggling  to  pour  a  casting  from  a  six-ton  ladle  provided 
with  no  other  means  for  such  an  operation  than  the  old 
crutch-bars  at  each  end.  When"  Nasmyth,  the  great  Eng- 
lish mechanic,  added  to  the  pivot  of  a  crane  ladle  a  tangent- 
screw  and  worm-wheel  by  which  it  might  be  gradually 
tilted  by  one  man  standing  conveniently  near  by,  he  made 
every  moulder  in  the  universe  his  debtor;  and  no  founder 
should  hesitate,  on  the  ground  of  expense  or  for  any  other 
reason,  in  providing  such  safe  means  as  this  valuable  inven- 
tion secures.  The  difference  between  the  two  devices  is  a 
striking  one,  and  .compensates  in  a  large  measure  for  the 
very  meagre  conveniences  supplied  by  our  too-easy  ances- 
tors. What  the  writer  believes  to  be  the  chief  characteris- 
tics of  a  good  geared  ladle  will  be  found  on  page  79. 


HAY   AND   STKAW   ROPES. 

We  noticed  how  anxious  were  the  founders  of  almost 
every  country  to  possess  one  of  the  hay-twisters  shown  at 
Fig.  55,  when  they  were  first  placed  on  the  market;  but 
this  may  not  have  been  occasioned  by  a  desire  to  be  abreast 
of  the  times  so  much  as  that  their  superiority  over  the  old 
patriarchal  ways,  from  a  monetary  point  of  view,  was  so 
manifest  as  to  check  all  opposition  to  their  general  ad  op- 


FO  UNDR  T  APPLIANCES.  141 

tion  wherever  large  quantities  of  hay  or  straw  ropes  were 
used.  However,  we  are  willing  to  class  this  with  the  other 
evidences  of  a  general  desire  for  a  more  practical  and 
rational  adoption  of  any  mechanical  contrivance  which 
will  not  only  save  labor,  but,  also  add  dignity  to  a  much- 
abused  trade. 
As  seen,  this  machine  makes  the  hay  or  straw  rope,  and 


Fig.  55. 

winds  it  up  into  a  coil  for  transportation.  Rollers  draw 
the  hay  from  the  trough,  and  the  twisting  is  effected  by  a 
planetary  action  of  the  rollers  longitudinally  ;  it  is  then 
coiled  on  the  reel. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  above-described  machine 
there  have  appeared  others  of  more  or  less  merit,  but  with 
many  it  remains  a  matter  for  conjecture  whether  there  has 
been  any  substantial  improvement  made. 


142  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


GEAR-MOULDING   BY   MACHINERY. 

Owing  to  the  various  difficulties  caused  by  irregular 
ramming,  unequal  expansion  of  patterns  arising  from  the 
different  degrees  of  dampness  in  the  sand,  as  well  as  the 
Imost  certain  destruction  of  some  parts  of  the  mould  dur- 
ing the  withdrawal  of  the  pattern,  and  which  could  at  best 
be  but  approximately  repaired,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  very 
few  gear-wheels  of  magnitude  were  ever  made  true  before 
Jackson,  of  Manchester,  England,  invented  his  machine 
for  forming  part  of  the  mould  and  spacing  the  teeth  with 
mechanical  accuracy  in  the  sand,  one  tooth  only  being 
used  for  producing  the  whole  number  contained  in  the 
wheel,  this  one  tooth  being  alternately  raised  and  lowered 
by  suitable  machinery,  which  not  only  draws  the  pattern 
with  absolute  precision,  but  travels  to  the  next  tooth  as 
precisely  as  could  happen  in  the  best  gear-cutting  machine. 

Everything  points  to  the  fact  that  the  principle  of  Jack- 
son's machine  was  first  suggested  to  him  by  the  method  of 
moulding  gear-wheels  which  was  then  finding  favor  at  most 
of  the  large  millwright  shops  in  his  immediate  neighbor- 
hood, and  which  will  be  found  fully  explained  in  "  The  Iron 
Founder,"  the  scheme  therein  described  for  forming  the 
cope  and  bottom  bed,  as  well  as  the  arms,  being  substan- 
tially the  same  as  adopted  by  him;  in  fact,  if  the  reader 
will  carefully  examine  the  whole  subject  he  will  see  clearly 
that  the  wheel  moulding  machine  is  simply  the  application 
of  a  method  for  spacing  the  teeth,  and  insuring  a  better 
draw  of  the  same. 

Since  the  introduction  of  the  above  machine  many  others 
have  sprung  into  existence,  notably  the  Scott,  Bellington 
and  Darbyshire,  Whittaker's,  Buckley  and  Taylor's,  and 
Simpson's.  With  the  exception  of  the  latter,  all  these 
machines  are  actuated  -by  change- wheels  for  effecting  the 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES.  143 

regular  movement  of  the  same;  but  the  Simpson  machine 
is  worked  independent  of  such  means,  thus  obviating  any 
inaccuracy  consequent  on  the  wear  and  tear  of  the  several 
wheels  employed.  The  pitching  of  the  teeth  is  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  the  division-plate  and  index-pin  of  a 
geometric  lathe,  and  on  these  machines  a  sheet-iron  drum 
is  secured  to  the  top  of  the  central  column  of  the  machine, 
and  perforated  with  a  series  of  circles  of  holes,  giving  a 
large  range  of  numbers  suitable  for  different  numbers  of 
teeth.  A  peg  is  made  to  fit  into  these  holes,  passing 
through  a  hole  in  the  vertical  arm  attached  to  the  horizon- 
tal arm  which  carries  the  tooth-block,  and  so  locks  the 
machine  accurately  during  the  ramming  of  each  separate 
tooth.  The  horizontal  or  carrier  arm  slides  vertically  on 
the  central  pillar,  and  when  adjusted  for  height  is  kept  in 
position  by  means  of  a  collar  upon  which  it  rests.  A  slot 
in  the  arm  permits  of  a  movement  upon  the  horizontal 
slide  operated  radially  by  a  screw  and  hand-wheel  ; 
through  this  slide  passes  a  screw  and  a  guide-rod  for  im- 
parting a  vertical  movement  to  the  tooth-block.  The 
tooth-block  is  elevated  by  a  hand-wheel  and  mitre-wheel  ; 
provision  is  made  by  a  hand-wheel  and  slot  for  setting  the 
blocks  of  bevel-wheels  at  any  required  degree  of  angle. 

Fig.  56  is  a  rough  sketch  of  a  moulding-machine  for 
wheels  when  the  spacing  is  actuated  by  change-wheels.  It 
is  seen  that  a  pattern  is  used  corresponding  to  a  small 
portion  of  the  gear  to  be  moulded  ;  this  pattern  includes 
two  teeth  and  the  interdental  space,  when  spur-gears  are 
to  be  moulded,  and  is  attached  to  the  lower  end  of  the  ver- 
tical guide-bar,  which  slides  in  ways  formed  at  the  end  of 
a  horizontal  support,  which  has  a  radial  position  relatively 
to  a  central  spindle  or  arbor.  By  this  means  the  pattern 
is  carried  around,  and,  being  made  to  descend  upon  the 
bed  previously  formed,  gives,  after  ramming,  the  proper 
impression  for  that  portion  of  the  gear-wheel  which  corre- 


144 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


spends  to  it.  Ifc  is  used  to  mould  gears  from  nine  inches  up 
to  six  feet  in  diameter— either  spur,  bevel,  mitre,  mortise, 
or  worm  wheels,  plain  or  shrouded ;  and  it  is  also  equally 


Fig.  56. 

applicable  to  moulding  fly-wheels  or  pulleys,  either  plain  or 
shrouded. 


OTHER   LABOR-SAVING   DEVICES — CASINGS. 

Casings  in  which  to  form  the  outer,  and  in  some  in- 
stances both  outer  and  inner  parts  of  crystallizing  cones 
for  chemical  works,  as  well  as  sugar-pans  and  numbers  of 
kettles,  etc.,  were  a  natural  outcome  of  the  ever-increasing 
demand  for  such  articles,  and  which  could  not  have  been 
met  by  the  usual  practice  of  moulding  in  bricks  and  loam. 
The  same  may  be  said  with  regard  to  the  rapid  growth  of 
the  pipe  trade  consequent  on  the  general  outcry  for  a  pure 
and  plentiful  water-supply ;  the  creeping  methods  of 
moulding  on  the  flat  in  green  sand  had  to  be  abolished  ulti- 
mately in  favor  of  vertical  moulding  in  iron  casings,  which 


FO  UNDR T  APPLIANCES.  145 

latter  suggested  the  application  of  said  methods  to  hy- 
draulic rams,  and  all  castings  that  could  by  this  means  be 
made  without  external  ramming  in  the  pits.  Vide  "  The 
Iron  Founder,"  page  186. 

PIT   RAMMING. 

When  the  loam-moulder,  in  ramming  up  large  bodies  of 
sand  in  pits,  sought  out  weights  and  big  logs  to  occupy 
spaces  of  more  than  ordinary  dimensions,  thus  reducing 
the  time  consumed  in  ramming  as  well  as  making  a  harder 
body  for  the  mould  to  press  against,  he  was  sowing  the  seeds 
which  ultimately  blossomed  into  the  well-kept  curbs  which 
could  be  fastened  together  at  any  convenient  distance  from 
the  mould,  making  the  containing  of  the  latter  independent 
of  whatever  space  might  be  outside.  The  climax  was 
reached  when  he  confined  all  of  his  mould  in  suitably  con- 
trived casings,  in  which  the  mould  was  prepared  from  the 
outset. 

WORM-PINIONS,   ON   END. 

We  can  well  remember  when  it  was  first  suggested  to 
mould  a  worm-pinion  by  drawing  it  out  of  the  sand  endwise, 
and  by  that  means  obviate  the  unsightly  joint.  "  Pooh  ! 
pooh  !  "  exclaimed  the  conservative  moulders  around;  but 
just  as  soon  as  a  suitable  pattern,  with  the  necessary  ap- 
pendages for  supporting  and  guiding  the  same,  was  fur- 
nished, the  feat  was  accomplished  without  trouble,  to  the 
very  evident  dissatisfaction  of  the  doubters.  Now  we  have 
some  pretty  long  pieces  of  conveyer-screw  formed  in  the 
sand  by  first  forming  a  plain  cylindrical  mould,  and  after- 
wards forming  the  thread  by  screwing  a  short  section  of 
pattern  through  the  mould. 

SCREW-PROPELLERS. 

It  is  very  evident  that  there  has  been  a  steady  improve- 
ment in  the  ways  of  moulding  screw-propellers  from  the 


146  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

first;  the  writer  remembers  some  very 'roundabout  methods 
which  at  that  time  were  considered  perfection.  Since  then, 
however,  large  numbers  of  patents  have  been  granted  for 
improved  methods  of  sweeping,  flask-forming,  and  ram- 
ming, all  evincing  that  there  was  a  keen  competitive  spirit 
abroad.  Following  close  on  the  heels  of  some  late  improve- 
ments by  moulding  in  fixed  flasks  from  one  blade  pattern 
only,  comes  still  another  patent  for  forming  the  blades 
separately  by  a  sweep  and  an  adjustable  knife,  which  forms 
the  blade  independent  of  a  pattern  altogether. 

It  is  very  encouraging  to  notice  that  most  of  these  late 
inventions  for  propeller-making  devices  belong  to  practical 
moulders,  some  of  whom  are  now  working  at  the  trade, 
clearly  showing  that  we,  as  a  class,  are  in  the  race  for  a 
legitimate  share  of  the  thinking. 

BLOCK   AND   PLATE   MOULDING. 

A  short  review  of  the  two  methods — block  and  plate 
moulding — will  serve  to. show  that  the  spirit  of  invention 
was  abroad  in  the  foundries  when  some  of  the  oldest  of  us 
were  boys  ;  how  much  these  early  attempts  have  helped  in 
bringing  about  the  present  elaborate  systems  will  be  appar- 
ent when  a  full  knowledge  of  the  modes  then  employed  is 
obtained.  Plaster-blocks  were  invented  to  make  the 
moulding  of  thin  delicate  register  work,  as  well  as  other 
long  thin  castings  having  more  or  less  elegance  of  design,  a 
more  easy  and  safe  operation,  and  consisted  of  taking 
plaster  casts  of  each  side  of  the  pattern ;  then  from  both 
these  impressions  other  plaster  casts  were  taken  in  top  and 
bottom  match  flasks,  the  latter  then  serving  to  ram  thereon 
cope  and  nowel  respectively,  exclusive  of  the  original  pat- 
tern. Such  moulds  are  in  all  cases  an  exact  duplicate  of 
the  pattern,  free  from  all  the  imperfections  usually  attend- 
fng  the  moulding  of  very  light  work  by  the  common  prac- 
tice, 


147 


The  nfece^sity  feP  ;pr£dudiiig  stnall  jvork^f ;  jail  descrip- 
tions at  a\jfoO'^  rapid  rate,  and  with  greate^ajfcuracy,  sug- 
gested the  pJ4^j|>le  pf  what  is  called  p^^j^lding,  which 
consists  of  naife^eil^tt^2%S^^^rlane(i  edges  to 
receive  a  plate  hetwixfnrptrni>e^rtfrer  side  of  which  are  the 
respective  halves  of  the  several  castings  connected  by  the 
running  gates.  The  pinning  of  these  flasks  is  so  arranged 
that  the  cope  may  be  set  down  face  up,  upon  which  the 
plate  is  then  pinned,  to  be  followed  by  the  nowel,  which 
is  at  once  rammed.  After  turning  all  three  over,  the  gate- 
pin  is  set  into  a  socket  over  the  main  runner,  the  cope 
rammed  and  separated,  when,  after  a  slight  jarring,  the 
plate  is  lifted  off,  exposing  all  the  moulds  with  gates  ready 
cut,  leaving  nothing  to  be  done  except  to  set  in  whatever 
cores  are  needed  and  close  the  mould.  Should  the  cope 
side  of  the  plate  offer  any  difficulty  in  effecting  a  clean  lift, 
the  nowels  and  copes  can  be  rammed  alternately;  by  this 
means  the  plate  is  lifted  away  from  the  mould  in  both  cases, 
thus  insuring  a  clean  separation.  The  very  excellent  idea 
of  fitting  flasks  interchangeably  originated  with  these  two 
methods. 

MOULDING-MACHINES. 

The  stripping-plate,  which  constitutes  one  of  the  chief 
elements  of  the  modern  moulding-machine,  is  not  by  any 
means  a  new  invention:  some  of  the  first  were  made  over 
thirty  years  ago  by  a  large  manufacturer  of  cotton  machin- 
ery in  Oldham,  England,  for  the  production  at  a  cheaper 
rate  of  pulleys,  wheels,  and  other  small  work  too  numerous 
to  mention.  Compared  with  the  elaborate  systems  of 
stool-plates,  etc.,  on  some  of  the  present  machines,  these 
early  efforts  were  no  doubt  somewhat  rude  ;  still,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  principles  upon  which  the  present  methods 
are  based  are  one  and  the  same  with  the  past — the  patterns 
projected  through  the  plate  and  were  withdrawn  under- 


148  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

neath  by  means  of  levers  before  the  rammed  flask  was 
lifted  off.  Some  were  rolled  over  with  the  flask,  and  the 
pattern  pulled  through. 

The  question  is  sometimes  asked  by  parties  opposed  to 
machine-moulding,  "  Is  the  investment  in  machines  and 
other  appliances  fora  foundry  justifiable?"  And  the 
reply  readily  comes  that  "you  are  justified  in  putting  a 
plant  into  a  foundry,  and  that  every  part  of  it  should  be 
as  good  as  it  can  be  made."  They  claim,  and  not  without 
reason,  that,  with  the  exception  of  some  minor  devices,  the 
foundry  employs  the  old  pod-auger  methods;  and,  further, 
that  inasmuch  as  no  man  would  hesitate  to  put  new  tools 
into  his  machine-shop  that  would  save  fifty  per  cent 
of  what  the  labor  costs,  ought  to  hesitate  when  a  similar 
inducement  is  offered  in  the  foundry.  They  furthermore 
assert  that,  owing  to  the  superintendent  being  invariably  a 
machinist  and  not  a  moulder,  and  while  he  is  conscious  that 
present  methods  are  neither  economical  nor  progressive — 
being  unacquainted  with  the  work — he  defers  to  his  foun- 
dry-man, who  wants  his  foundry  improved,  but  considers 
moulding  an  art  and  not  a  trade,  for  which  machines  can 
do  the  thinking.  The  latter  assertion  may  be  correct  in 
some  instances,  but  we  know  of  places  where  the  exact 
reverse  is  the  case  ;  and  even  now  there  are  many  firms 
where  machines  are  in  active  operation  under  the  imme- 
diate supervision  of  superintendents  who  are  not  moulders, 
and  where  the  foreman  moulder  devotes  his  whole  energy 
to  make  the  machines  a  success,  and  this  with  astonishingly 
successful  results. 

Another  authority  upon  this  subject  says:  "The  all-ab- 
sorbing question,  '  What  is  the  economy  in  machine-mould- 
ing ?'  is  very  difficult  to  answer.  The  product  of  machines 
will  vary  in  different  foundries  as  much  as  the  product  of 
the  moulder.  .What  may  be  called  a  fair  day's  work  is  an 
unsettled  question.  A  machine  that  will  mould  175  flasks, 


FOUNDE7  APPLIANCES.  149 

16  X  16  X  10  inches  deep,  with  two  men  to  operate  it,  in  one 
foundry,  would,  tinder  precisely  the  same  conditions,  mould 
250  in  another.  One  manager  ma}^  surround  his  machine 
with  conveniences  for  handling  the  work  and  thus  increase 
his  product,  while  another  would  compel  his  machine-men 
to  work  under  disadvantages.  The  treasurer  and  practical 
shopman  of  a  foundry  were  observing  the  operations  of  an 
automatic  machine,  with  watch  in  hand.  A  complete  half 
mould  in  16-inch  nowel,  5  inches  deep,  had  just  been  made 
and  turned  on  the  floor  for  inspection  in  ten  seconds  after 
the  sand  was  put  into  the  flask,  when  the  treasurer  asked 
the  question,  '  How  many  moulds  can  be  made  in  a  day  ?' 
Before  any  reply  could  be  given  the  shopman  said,  '  That's 
not  the  question :  the  question  is,  How  many  moulds  can 
we  take  care  of  ? '  A  better  answer  could  not  have  been 
given." 

The  conditions  are  not  at  all  favorable  when  all  the  sand 
is  handled  by  shovels,  and  the  moulds  carried  to  and  fro  by 
hand.  The  authority  above  quoted,  in  speaking  of  this, 
says:  "  Two  men  on  this  machine  make  200  moulds  per 
day,  and  average  during  the  working  hours  from  twenty- 
seven  to  thirty-four  moulds  per  hour.  These  men  have 
made  and  carried  away  158  nowels  in  one  hour  and  thirty- 
five  minutes,  and  have  made  200  complete  moulds  ready  for 
clamping  in  less  than  five  hours.  The  flasks  used  in  this  case 
were  14  X  17  X  10  inches  deep,  and  weighed  70  pounds; 
the  sand  in  the  flask  when  rammed  weighed  156  pounds. 
We  must  keep  in  mind  that  these  two  men  must  shovel 
into  flasks  over  31,000  pounds  of  sand  and  carry  off  the 
same  amount  in  making  200  moulds;  they  must  also  handle 
twice  14,000  pounds  of  iron  in  flasks.  200  moulds  under 
these  conditions  is  too  much  for  five  hours'  work,  but  this 
number  is  not  too  much  for  a  day's  work  for  two  men.  A 
greater  product  might  be  obtained  from  an  additional 
man,  or  a  conveyer  for  elevating  sand  to  a  hopper  over  the 


JoO  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

machine.     A  system  of  handling  the  moulds  after  they  are 
made  would  also  add  to  the  machine's  capacity." 

Mr.  Harris  Tabor,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  at  the  San  Francisco 
meeting,  May,  1892,  says:  "  Of  all  the  mechanical  arts,  that 
of  moulding  has  been  the  most  difficult  to  formulate  and 
reduce  to  a  system.  Since  the  origin  of  metal-founding 
the  moulder  has  been  pleased  to  shroud  his  methods  in 
certain  mysteries  which,  to  him  at  least,  seem  essential  to 
perfect  castings.  There  is  much  beyond  the  control  of 
the  moulder,  in  the  art  of  metal-founding,  which  tends  to 
make  bad  castings.  His  strongest  influence  upon  the  qual- 
ity of  his  work  lies  in  the  skill  which  cannot  be  verified  by 
caliper,  gauge,  or  rule.  The  moulder's  art  is  in  making  the 
mould  of  its  proper'density.  Drawing  a  pattern  from  the 
sand  after  it  has  been  rammed,  and  mending  a  broken 
mould,  are  mechanical  operations  easily  taught:  it  is  not  so 
with  ramming.  If  a  touch  of  genius  enters  into  the  mould- 
ing it  is  shown  in  making  the  mould  of  such  density  that  it 
will  stand  pouring  without  '  straining/  and  be  soft  enough 
to  prevent '  blowing '  and  '  scabbing,'  with  a  certainty  that 
the  sand  will  remain  in  place  until  the  iron  has  solidified. 
This  is  the  moulder's  skill,  which  cannot  be  formulated 
and  passed  down  to  succeeding  generations  in  books."  It 
is  very  evident  from  the  above  that  Mr.  Tabor  knew  what 
difficulties  he  had  to  contend  with  when  he  undertook  to 
make  a  moulding-machine  that  would  automatically  over- 
come them  all.  What  course  he  pursued  may  be  partially 
gathered  from  what  he  says  in  another  part  of  the  paper 
quoted:  "  In  the  spring  of  1890,  Mr.  A.  13.  Moore,  who  was 
then  a  Stevens  Institute  senior,  selected  the  rammer  ma- 
chine as  the  subject  of  his  thesis.  We  discussed  the  lack 
of  data  bearing  upon  the  friction  of  sand,  and  decided 
jointly  to  make  experiments.  An  ordinary  platform-scale 
was  used  for  weighing.  A  series  of  boxes  4x4  inches,  5x5 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES. 


151 


inches,  and  6x6  inches  was  decided  on ;  these  boxes  were 
supported  by  frames  spanning  the  scale  and  resting  on  the 
ground,  as  seen  at  Fig.  5? ;  each  box  was  fitted  with  a  loose 
bottom,  which  rested  on  the  scale  platform.  The  plunger 
used  for  ramming  fitted  its  box  loosely  enough  to  avoid 
serious  friction,  and  was  connected  to  the  weighted  lever 
by  a  turned  joint;  the  weight  of  the  lever  on  the  sand  was 
found  by  weighing  it  in  position.  In  all  cases  the  scale 
was  weighted  to  a  pressure  equal  to  10  pounds  per  square 


Fig.  57. 

inch  on  the  under  face  of  the  box.  (This  is  about  the 
density  of  the  average  mould  surface.)  We  began  with  the 
4-inch  square  box  as  follows:  2|-  inches  of  loose  sand  was 
put  in  and  compressed  to  1}£  inches  to  give  a  density 
equal  to  10  pounds  on  the  under  side,  and  it  required  a 
pressure  of  12£  pounds  on  the  top  of  the  sand  to  produce 
this  result.  With  5  inches  of  loose  sand,  17 £  pounds  press- 
ure was  required  on  top  to  give  10  pounds  below;  an  ad- 
dition of  2J  inches  in  the  depth  of  sand  brought  the  ram- 
ming pressure  up  to  34  pounds,  and  the  last  2J-  inches — 
making  10  inches— required  a  pressure  of  42  pounds  to 
give  10  pounds  on  the  scales.  With  the  6-inch  box  only 
11^  pounds  were  needed  to  give  10  pounds  below  with  2J 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

inches  of  sand;  with  10  inches,  26  pounds  raised  the  scale- 
beam,  or  16  pounds  less  than  was  required  under  precisely 
the  same  conditions  with  the  4-inch  box.  The  walls  of 
the  boxes  were  of  undressed  plank  to  represent  the  average 
condition  of  wooden  flasks." 

THE  TABOE   MOULDING-MACHINE. 

With  the  rammer  system  of  this  machine  greater  pressure 
may  be  given  over  portions  of  the  mould  which  would  other- 


Fig.  58. 

wise  be  too  soft.  When  flasks  are  of  such  a  size  that  bars 
are  necessary,  the  rammers  are  arranged  to  straddle  them, 
thus  doing  away  with  all  tendency  of  the  bars  to  spring; 
this  method  also  avoids  the  necessity  of  tucking  under  the 
bars.  When  the  flat  platen  is  used  for  ramming,  sand  may 
be  scooped  away  from  the  highest  portions  of  the  pattern 
until  the  best  results  are  obtained.  With  these  automatic 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES.  153 

machines  the  rigid  platen  made  of  hard  wood,  is  used 
for  ramming,  and  cut  boldly  over  the  pattern;  by  this 
method  it  is  claimed  that  no  skill  or  judgment  is  necessary 
in  putting  sand  into  the  flask,  and  the  density  of  the  mould 
over  the  iron  may  be  made  to  suit  any  condition.  The 
method  of  using  flask-bars  for  ramming  is  to  have  them 
detached  from  the  flask,  and  short  enough  to  be  forced 
down  without  coming  in  contact  with  its  walls;  the  flask 
and  sand-box  are  filled  with  sand,  and  the  bars  forced  down 
by  a  flat  platen;  the  bars  are  deeper  where  the  greatest 


Fig.  59. 

ramming  is  required,  and  being  made  wedge-shaped,  each 
bar  spreads  the  sand  until  it  meets  the  spreading  influence 
of  its  neighbor.  The  heavy  flasks  are  placed  on  trucks, 
which  are  topped  with  stripping-plates  and  contain  mech- 
anism for  drawing  the  patterns;  the  trucks  are  run  under 
the  machine  for  ramming,  and  withdrawn  to  take  off  the 
mould  and  replace  the  flask.  For  the  lighter  flasks  which 
can  be  lifted  by  hand  the  machine  shown  at  Figs.  58  and 
59  is  made;  the  figure  shows  the  floor  broken  to  give  view 
of  the  machine  below  the  floor-line.  The  piston  takes 
steam  on  the  under  side  only,  its  weight  being  sufficient  to 
return  it  promptly  after  the  mould  is  rammed.  To  the 
piston-rod  is  attached  the  principal  part  of  the  mechanism, 


154  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

consisting  of  a  table  with  Ings  projecting  upwards  and 
supporting  the  pattern-frame  upon  which  rest  the  patterns. 
The  stripping-plate  frame  is  directly  over  the  pattern- 
frame  and  rests  on  it,  to  which  the  stripping-plate  is  at- 
tached, The  stool-plate  is  suspended  to  the  stripping- 
plate  frame  and  moves  with  it;  the  side  levers  and  tumbling- 
shaft  are  for  tripping  after  the  pattern  is  withdrawn.  The 
pattern-frame  has  an  annular  passage,  which  connects  with 
the  cylinder  and  admits  some  steam  to  the  pattern-plate  at 
each  movement,  thus  keeping  the  patterns  in  a  dry  condi- 
tion for  smooth  working.  The  stool-plate  is  really  part  of 
the  stripping-plate  frame  placed  below  the  pattern -frame, 
its  object  being  to  support  stools,  or  internal  parts  of  the 
stripping-plate  used  in  holding  up  the  green-sand  cores,  or 
heavy  bodies  of  hanging  sand  while  the  pattern  is  being 
drawn:  these  stops  can  readily  be  changed  to  suit  any 
pattern  within  the  range  of  the  machine.  The  ramming- 
head  is  carried  by  the  wrought  rods  seen  at  either  side  of 
the  machine.  The  steam-pipe  enters  the  cylinder  at  the 
bottom,  and  from  the  throttle-valve  to  the  cylinder  serves 
also  as  an  exhaust-pipe,  the  throttle-valve  being  a  two-way 
cock  by  which  steam  is  both  admitted  or  exhausted  from 
the  cylinder.  The  half-flask  is  put  on  the  stripping-plate, 
with  the  sand-box  to  hold  the  sand  which  is  to  be  com- 
pressed, and  both  are  filled  with  sand;  the  ramming-head 
is  then  swung  forward  over  the  flask  against  the  stops 
which  define  its  position,  and  the  throttle-valve  opened. 
The  upward  motion  of  the  piston  and  attached  parts  carries 
the  flask  and  sand  up  to  the  ramming-head,  where  it  is 
rammed  instantly,  and  upon  the  lever  being  moved  again 
steam  is  cut  off,  and  at  the  same  time  exhausted,  allowing 
the  flask  to  descend  ;  the  stops  then  engaging  the  free  ends 
of  side  levers  and  arresting  the  downward  motion  of  strip- 
ping-plate at  a  point  about  midway.  The  pattern  continu- 
ing to  descend  is  drawn  from  the  mould,  and  when  the 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES.  155 

piston  has  returned  to  its  lowest  position  the  sand  is  struck 
off  the  flask,  which  is  then  taken  from  the  machine.  As 
the  man  removes  it  he  presses  the  tripping- treadle  with 
his  foot  to  release  the  stripping  plate  frame,  which  then 
falls  to  its  proper  position  with  respect  to  the  pattern,  and 
the  machine  is  ready  for  another  mould.  Water  or  com- 
pressed air  may  be  used  instead  of  steam  if  it  is  desirable, 
though  it  is  believed  that  steam  is  preferable  in  most  cases, 
because  it  is  usually  easily  obtained  without  the  use  of 
special  auxiliary  machinery  of  any  kind. 

THE   YIELDING-PLATEN   MOULDING-MACHINE. 

The  Atlas  Engine  Works,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  are  the 
makers  of  the  above-named  machine,  a  perspective  view  of 
which  is  given  at  Fig.  60.  The  top  of  this  machine  is 


Fig.  60. 

provided  with  a  rubber  bag  filled  with  water  or  compressed 
air,  and  the  bottom  or  cylinder  is  caused  to  raise  by  the 
admission  of  compressed  air,  thus  forcing  the  flask  con- 
taining the  sand  against  the  rubber  bag,  which,  they  claim, 
presses  the  sand  in  a  manner  that  cannot  be  effected  by 
any  other  known  method.  The  makers  say  that  amongst 
their  several  devices  developed  for  yielding-platen  mould- 


156  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

ing-machines  the  flexible  diaphragm  backed  by  the  fluid 
forms  a  wonderfully  simple  and  effective  machine.  The 
platen  yields  according  to  the  form  of  the  pattern,  thus 
producing  uniform  density  of  sand  and  perfect  castings. 
The  double  rotary  feature  adds  fully  fifty  per  cent  to  the 
productive  capacity  of  their  original  single  machine.  Pro- 
vision is  made  for  reasonable  variance  in  depth  of  the  cope 
and  drag  without  adjustment  of  the  machine.  Both  drag 
and  cope  patterns  are  on  the  machine  at  the  same  time. 
They  are  made  alternately,  arid  the  moulds  finished,  cov- 
ered, and  clamped  on  the  floor,  ready  for  pouring,  without 
increasing  the  labor  force  more  than  one  man  over  that 
employed  on  the  single  machine.  The  machine  is  turned 
on  its  centre  with  little  effort,  and,  in  spite  of  its  rapid 
work,  is  not  wearing  on  the  operatives.  There  is  nothing 
to  get  out  of  order,  nothing  to  break  by  strain.  Wooden 
patterns  can  be  used  and  drawn  by  hand,  though  drawing 
iron  patterns  through  Bt ripping-plates  is  recommended. 
The  writer  has  stood  and  watched  these  machines  in  oper- 
ation, and  can  bear  testimony  to  the  regularity  as  well  as 
efficacy  of  their  movements,  which  is  in  every  respect  equal 
to  what  is  claimed  for  them,  quality  as  well  as  quantity 
being  alike  phenomenal. 

TEETOR   MOULDIXG-MACHINE. 

This  machine  provides  means  for  holding  the  flask 
securely,  and  turning  it  over;  also  for  jarring  the  pattern, 
and  holding  the  same  perfectly  level,  to  allow  a  clean  sep- 
aration of  the  mould  therefrom.  As  will  be  seen  at  Figs. 
61  and  62,  the  journals  of  the  revolving  moulding  table 
are  mounted  on  the  top  of  the  main  standards.  Amongst 
other  things  claimed  for  this  machine  are  the  following. 
That  nearly  all  patterns  may  be  operated  successfully  with- 
out stripping-plate;  undercut  patterns,  or  such  as  have 
curved,  tapering  projections,  are  operated,  automatically, 


FOUNDRY  APPLIANCES. 


157 


by  a  method  of  suspending  such  oblique  parts  to  the  main 
pattern  by  means  of  a  slotted  link,  which  accommodates 
itself  to  the  requisite  position  for  a  clean  draw.  Flasks 
may  be  given  such  form  as  will  suit  the  form  of  the  pat- 


Fig.  61. 

tern,  in  which  case  the  general  form  of  the  intervening 
pattern-plate  can  be  suited  to  the  form  of  the  pattern ;  or 
two  machines  may  be  employed,  with  separate  match-plates 
for  cope  and  drag. 

A  jarring  mechanism  is  also  provide:!,  being  mounted  on 
extreme  end  of  axle,  on  outside  of  the  hand-wheel  seen,  and 
consists  of  a  wheel  provided  with  a  handle  and  having 
pivoted  on  its  rim  a  double-acting  anchor-shaped  cam, 


158 


THE  IKON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


adapted  to  beat  sharply  against  thei  axle  of  the  moulding- 
table,  by  being  revolved  rapidly,  and  engaging  with  a  mul- 
tiple cam  ring  fixed  on  main  hand-wheel.  This  jarring  does 
not  shake  the  pattern  in  the  mould,  but  gives  it  a  general 
tremor  sufficient  to  loosen  it  from  the  sand.  Within  the 


Fig.  62. 

revolving  moulding-table  are  secured  four  adjustable 
clamps,  adapted  to  hold  the  pattern-plate  in  any  position 
of  elevation  desired,  to  suit  the  comparative  depth  of  cope 
and  drag.  The  revolving  moulding-table  is  also  provided 
with  a  double  set  of  double-acting  adjustable  and  inde- 
pendent excentric  bales,  adapted  to  bind  and  hold  the 


tf»f  & 

SLINGS,  HOOKS, 


CHAINS. 

i 

flask  and 
ing  the  mou 

The  paten  te 
of  mounting  patfe*tic)i5g^^ 

as  follows:  Take  onehstfegfe^tttg^^cT  d  rill  holes  at 
exact  right  angles  with  the  joining  surface  set  on  the  other 
half;  bind  well  together,  and  drill  through  the  other  half, 
taking  care  that  the  hole  is  in  exact  line  all  through;  after 
which  secure  all  the  half  patterns  intended  for  the  pattern- 
plate  in  their  respective  positions  thereon,  and  drill  all 
holes  through  the  same.  The  two  halves  of  pattern  can 
then  be  secured  on  each  side  of  the  intervening  plate  by 
close-fitting  pins. 


CHAINS,  BEAMS,  SLINGS,  HOOKS,  ROPES,  ETC., 

FOR     LIFTING    AND     HANDLING     ALL     CLASSES     OF    WORK 
IN   THE   FOUNDRY. 

IT  is  a  well-established  fact  that  the  foundry  is,  ordi- 
narily, run  on  makeshift  principles  throughout,  but  espe- 
cially so  with  regard  to  the  manner  of  handling  material, 
whether  it  be  the  moulds  or  the  finished  castings. 

If  this  bad  feature  worked  advantageously  either  in  pro- 
ducing more  or  better  work,  or  both,  there  might  be  a 
modicum  of  excuse  for  pursuing  such  a  course;  but  it  does 
not.  On  the  contrary,  we  find  that  in  almost  every  in- 
stance more  time  is  needed  to  accomplish  the  work,  which 
when  done  is  very  evidently  far  behind  in  quality. 

Then  there  is  the  increased  danger  consequent  on  the 
using  of  tools  which  are  so  badly  adapted  for  the  work  in 
hand,  which  always  engenders  fear  on  the  part  of  the 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

workman,  thus  in  a  measure  disqualifying  him  for  the  work 
he  has  undertaken  to  perform. 

But  the  anomaly  which  stands  out  most  prominently  is 
that  it  invariably  takes  a  longer  time  and  costs  more  to 
establish  these  makeshift  methods  than  would  be  the  case 
if  safe  and  correct  devices  were  prepared. 

If  the  above  be  true,  and  'true'  it  is,  there  must  assur- 
edly be  something  wrong  somewhere.  Sound  judgment, 
backed  by  a  good  practical  knowledge  of  all  the  require- 
ments, should  always  suggest  safe  and  reliable  methods, 
even  if  they  are  more  expensive  at  first  cost.  Tn  my  ex- 
perience I  have  seldom  met  with  opposition,  from  employ- 
ers, to  the  best  methods  being  adopted  when  the  case  has 
been  properly  put. 

We  are  reluctantly  forced  to  confess  that  most  if  not  all 
of  the  makeshift  systems  in  vogue  arise  from  the  fact  that 
the  man  in  charge  is  not  equal  to  the  occasion;  he  does  the 
best  he  can,  no  doubt,  but  that  is  not  good  enough. 

The  subjects  chosen  for  illustration  in  this  article  offer 
a  wide  field  for  thought  and  practice;  and  whilst  it  may  be 
a  settled  fact  that  similar  equipments  for  every  foundry 
are  not  possible,  owing  to  the  diiferent  needs  to  suit  spe- 
cial cases,  yet  it  is  safe  to  say  that,  in  a  general  way,  lift- 
ing-tackle, with  some  few  modifications,  is  much  the  same 
everywhere. 

It  is  not,  as  a  rule,  necessary  to  have  a  multiplicity  of 
chains  for  handling  the  work  in  any  foundry,  and  this  may 
be  proved  very  easily  by  a  little  observation.  However 
plentiful  the  tackle  may  be,  there  is  sure  to  be  a  favorite 
set  or  sets  of  chains,  hooks,  etc.,  and  these  are  in  constant 
demand,  while  the  rest  are  usually  neglected  and  left  to 
rust  away  in  some  unused  corner  of  the  shop.  This  should 
at  once  suggest  the  propriety  of  limiting  the  supply  to  an 
adequate  number  of  just  such  chains,  etc.,  as  are  best 
adapted  for  general  purposes. 


CHAINS,  BEAMS,  SLINGS,  HOOKS,  ROPES,  ETC.    161 

Still,  a  too  strict  adherence  to  the  system  of  making 
everything  subservient  to  one  principle  of  handling  is  to  be 
deprecated,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  will  be  found  very 
desirable  in  special  cases  to  make  radical  changes  in  order 
to  obtain  the  maximum  in  both  quantity  and  quality  of 
work  to  be  done.  Experience  proves  that  any  departure 
from  fixed  methods,  which  will  perhaps  lessen  first  cost  as 
well  as  facilitate  production  other  ways,  is  to  be  com- 
mended, even  if  the  tackle  made  for  such  special  purposes 
be  not  required  when  the  job  is  through. 

The  substitution  of  hinges  for  the  recognized  methods 
of  separating  sometimes  works  wonders,  and  not  only  saves 
lifting-tackle  and  time,  but  enable  some  of  our  small  found- 
ers to  accomplish  work  which  without  their  aid  would  have 
been  far  beyond  their  capacity. 

The  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  other  methods,  such 
as  lifting  by  the  use  of  chains  and  resting  copes  on  horses 
provided  with  bearings  for  the  swivels  to  turn  in.  This 
method  can  with  profit  be  changed  in  some  shops  by 
using  the  beam  and  slings,  which  latter-mentioned  device 
is  eminently  adapted  for  a  wide  range  of  work  when  prop- 
erly managed. 

Fig.  63  will  serve  to  show  several  methods  of  handling 
loam  work,  round  or  rectangular,  by  the  use  of  a  four- 
armed  beam  or  cross,  on  which,  to  favor  illustration,  are 
represented  three  different  modes  of  carrying  the  moulds. 

The  cross  seen  at  A  is  supposed  to  be  made  of  cast-iron, 
and  is  provided  with  a  steel  centre  eye,  which  works  loose 
in  the  cross.  The  cross  is  strengthened  laterally  by  a 
flange  extending  from  the  centre  to  the  limit  of  the  notches 
for  holding  the  slings,  beam  hooks,  or  chains  which  are  set 
therein. 

The  plain  wrought-iron  slings  marked  J5,  (7,  Z>,  and  E 
are  useful  for  all  ordinary  lifting  when  the  mould  is  sus- 
pended direct  from  the  cross,  as  shown.  They  are  also  ex- 


162 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


cellent  adjuncts  to  the  cross  for  binding  purposes,  because 
there  is  no  particular  harm  done  by  leaving  them  rammed 
in  the  curbs,  or  pit,  until  the  mould  is  cast.  The  plan  of 
leaving  chains,  or  any  other  tackle  required  for  general 
use,  in  the  pit  is  a  reprehensible  one,  and  should  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible. 


Fig.  63. 

It  will  be  seen  that  by  using  the  cross  these  plain  slings 
are  equally  applicable  to  square  and  round  moulds  when  the 
lifting  lugs  are  cast  at  the  middle  of  the  square  plate,  as 
seen  at  F,  G,  H,  and  /. 

By  substituting  chain-slings  like  the  one  shown  at  J  and 
/,  an  ordinary  beam,  similar  to  the  one  shown  at  Fig.  64, 
may  be  used,  and  square  or  round  moulds  lifted  with  equal 
facility,  the  centre  lugs  F,  G,  H,  and  /  being  used  for  the 
round  moulds,  and  those  at  K,  L,  M,  and  N  provided  for  the 
square  ones;  the  flexibility  of  the  chain-sling  allows  of  its 
being  passed  around  the  mould  to  the  lifting  lug  with  ease. 


CHAINS,  BEAMS,  SLINGS,  HOOKS,  ROPES,  ETC.    163 

When  the  method  of  single  beam  and  chain  slings  is 
adopted,  it  is  advisable  to  make  all  lugs  on  the  plates  after 
the  manner  shown  at  Fig.  65,  and  the  sling  end  of  the 
chain  should  be  fashioned  to  fit  the  same  easy;  by  this 
means  the  grip  is  always  solid,  no  matter  what  angle  the 
chain  may  take  when  the  mould  is  lifted. 

In  order  to  make  such  chains  serve  for  both  long  and 
short  moulds,  beam-hooks  like  the  one  shown  at  0,  Fig.  63, 
can  be  forged,  into  which  hooks  or  slings  can  be  linked  to 
bring  the  sling  chain  up  to  the  desired  length. 

One  other  method  remains  to  be  spoken  of  in  this  con- 
nection, which  goes  to  prove  what  has  been  previously 


Fig.  64.  Fig.  65.  Fig.  66.  Fig.  67.         Fig.  6G. 

stated  in  regard  to  adopting  for  every  job  the  same  mode 
of  handling.  At  PP  is  shown  the  method  of  lifting  loam 
moulds  with  the  can-hooks  exclusively,  made  with  chain 
or  long  links,  as  shown. 

To  make  the  can-hook  principle  as  safe  as  possible,  strict 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  form  of  the  lugs  provided 
for  lifting  by.  Figs.  66  and  67  will  explain  more  readily 
than  could  be  done  in  words  how  this  may  be  accomplished. 
At  Fig.  66  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lug  is  made  at  an  angle 
on  the  side  next  the  hook;  this  allows  the  hook  to  take  a 
firm  grip  well  up  to  the  root,  where  it  is  the  strongest;  and 
Fig.  67  shows  a  stop  cast  on  each  lug  to  prevent  any  possi- 
bility of  the  hook  slipping  off. 

It  will  be  quickly  perceived  that,  in  order  to  allow  of 


164 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


these  hooks  being  used  for  the  purpose  ahove  mentioned, 
all  plates  and  rings  must  be  made  square,  no  matter  what 
the  form  of  the  mould  may  be. 

When  it  is  intended  that  flasks  shall  be  lifted  on  the 
same  principle,  all  tipper  flanges  must  bo  formed  after  the 
manner  shown  at  Fig.  66,  or  else  provision  can  be  made  for 


Fig.  69. 


Fig.  70. 


Fig.  71. 


Fig.  72. 


ring-bolts  at  such  places  as  will  best  serve  the  purpose, 
and  used  as  shown  at  Fig.  68. 

One  of  the  most  useful  styles  of  chains  which  can  be  pro- 
vided for  the  foundry  is  the  buckle  chain,  shown  at  Fig.  69. 
This  may  be  made  of  any  degree  of  strength,  and  consist 
of  as  many  legs  as  occasion  requires.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
any  foundry  lacking  such  appliances  as  these  will  profit 
considerably  by  providing  themselves  with  at  least  two 
pairs,  light  and  heavy,  of  just  such  chains  as  are  shown  at 
Fig.  69.  How  much  time  they  will  save  compared  with 
using  a  plain  chain,  when  a  nice  adjustment  is  needed,  is 


CHAINS,  BEAMS,  SLINGS,  HOOKS,  ROPES,  ETC.  165 

well  known  to  all  who  have  had  any  experience  in  their 
use,  and  therefore  requires  no  mention  here. 

Three  and  four  legged  chains,  shown  at  Figs.  70  and  71, 
are  a  great  convenience  for  special  occasions,  and  their 
usefulness  is  materially  augmented  by  having  them  made 
with  a  turnbuckle  like  those  at  Fig.  69.  The  contemptible 
practice  of  thrusting  nails  between  the  links  for  the  pur- 
pose of  adjustment  is  entirely  obviated  when  these  more 
sensible  means  are  employed. 

The  beam,  previously  spoken  of  in  reference  to  its  use 
for  loam  work,  and  seen  at  Fig.  64,  can  be  made  to  answer 
very  many  useful  ends,  chief  of  which  is  the  reversing  of 
copes  by  the  aid  of  slings.  The  form  of  sling  shown  at 
Fig.  72  is  perhaps  as  useful  as  any,  its  main  feature  being 
that  the  lower  circle  at  A  is  forged  to  fit  the  groove  of  the 
swivel,  the  upper  circle  being  necessarily  large  enough  to 
slip  over  the  guard  of  the  same. 

Another  use  for  the  beam  is  explained  at  Fig.  64,  which 
figure  serves  to  introduce  the  turnbuckle  A  in  another 
phase  of  its  usefulness.  This  entire  rig  will  be  seen  to 
consist  of  hooks,  two  of  which,  B  and  O,  take  the  first 
hold,  any  inequality  of  weight  being  regulated  by  the 
notches  in  the  beam,  while  the  buckle  A  admits  of  almost 
instant  adjustment  at  that  point,  making  it  a  very  easy 
matter  to  lift  all  irregularly  formed  moulds  with  the  great- 
est nicety. 

This  class  of  beam  may  easily  be  made  of  wrought  iron, 
and  because  such  beams  are  lighter  and  safer  than  cast  iron 
ones,  the  propriety  of  making  them  of  the  former  material 
will  be  apparent.  The  hole  under  the  beam  at  D  is  a  no- 
ticeable feature,  and  will  be  appreciated  when  any  supple- 
mentary hitching  must  be  done. 

It  will  be  well  to  observe  here  that  the  hook  shown  at 
0,  Fig.  63,  is  really  a  part  of  this  rig,  and  is  very  properly 


166 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


called  a  beam  hook,  because  ordinarily  these  hooks  would 
be  set  in  the  notches,  and  hooks  B  and  C  slung  thereon. 

The  variety  of  uses  to  which  the  turn  buckle  A  can  be 
put  will  be  apparent  to  many  who  are  now  making  shift  to 
get  along  by  methods  which  are  simply  ridiculous,  by  com- 
parison, on  account  of  their  inadaptation  to  the  work  for 
which  they  have  been  planned,  and  that  have  cost  perhaps 
more  than  tools  adequate  to  the  work  to  be  done  would  have 
cost. 

A  good  sling-chain  may  in  many  instances  be  made  to 
do  duty  for  the  beam  and  slings  by  the  use  of  a  stout  oak 
timber,  as  seen  at  A,  Fig.  73,  the  timber  to  be  strengthened 
at  the  ends  by  an  iron  shoe  which  allows  of  link-pins  being 
driven  in,  as  seen  at  B  and  C.  This  combination  will 
recommend  itself  as  a  time-saver  in  scores  of  cases  where 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  74. 


Fig.  75. 


the  object  to  be  reversed  is  not  too  heavy  to  make  such 
a  means  impracticable. 

Fig.  74  is  a  change-hook,  and,  as  its  name  implies,  is  used 
where  material  must  be  passed  from  one  crane  to  the  other 
without  resting  the  load ;  its  use  is  so  common  as  to  make 
any  description  here  superfluous.  It  would  be  well  to  ob- 
serve, however,  that  inasmuch  as  men  must  necessarily  be 
very  near  during  i he  process  of  changing,  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  in  selecting  Jhe  stock  for,  as  well  as  the 
forging  of,  this  hook. 


CHAINS,  BEAMS,  SLINGS,  HOOKS.  ROPES,  ETC.     167 

Sometimes  the  eyes  A  and  B  are  close-welded  to  the  body 
of  the  hook  with  the  view  of  augmenting  the  strength,  but 
it  is  much  handier  for  use  when  they  are  left  open,  as 
shown;  therefore,  to  combine  utility  with  strength,  let 
them  be  made  more  massive. 

Fig.  75  serves  to  illustrate  how  all  common  long  chains 
should  be  made  for  the  foundry.  What  is  meant  by  common 
chains  are  all  such  as  are  composed  of  two  strands  of  chain 
attached  to  a  ring  or  link  with  hooks  on  the  opposite  ends; 
in  other  words,  like  the  one  shown  at  Fig.  69,  minus  the 
turnbuckles. 

In  all  these  there  should  be  large  links  inserted  at 


Fig.  76.  Fig.  77.  Fig.  78. 

intervals,  into  which  the  hook  could  be  inserted,  as  seen  at 
A,  Fig.  75.  This  increases  the  usefulness  of  the  chain  to  a 
remarkable  extent,  as  will  be  at  once  seen  if  the  least 
thought  is  given  to  the  subject. 

It  would  be  well  at  this  juncture  to  call  the  attention  of 
all  concerned  to  a  practice  which  I  am  sorry  to  say  pre- 
vails in  many  of  the  foundries,  of  making  the  shop  chains 
out  of  the  old  crane  chains.  Now  such  practice  is,  to  say 
the  least,  a  very  bad  one;  and  there  need  be  no  wonder 
why  at  such  places  they  should  have  so  many  broken 
chains,  with  an  occasional  broken  leg  or  back  to  save  the 
thing  from  becoming  monotonous. 

When  a  chain  is  considered  to  he  unfit  for  the  crane  it 
maybe  reasonably  supposed  that  its  usefulness  is  ended, 
and  it  should  be  at  once  consigned  to  the  scrap-pile. 

When  a  lift  is  to  be  taken  on  a  very  long  box,  with  two 
pairs  of  ordinary  chains  somewhat  short  for  the  purpose,  it 


168 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


is  common  to  see  one  pair  set  to  lift  each  end  of  the  box: 
this  naturally  spreads  the  rings  in  the  hook  after  the  man- 
ner shown  at  Fig.  76,  and  brings  the  strain  front  and  back 
of  the  hook;  the  effect  not  infrequently  of  this  mode  is  to 
rend  the  hook  asunder.  This  may  be  obviated  in  most 
cases  by  altering  the  position  of  the  chains,  so  that  each 
pair  will  lift  one  side:  by  so  doing  the  spread  takes  place 
in  the  ring,  as  seen  at  Fig.  77,  and  the  hook  is  called  upon 
to  bear  the  whole  weight  direct  without  suffering  any 
undue  strain. 

But  should  it  be  absolutely  necessary  to  take  a  lift  which 
would  in  any  way  endanger  the  safety  of  the  hook,  let  a 


Fig.  79. 


Fig.  80. 


Fig.  81. 


screw  clamp  be  made  like  the  one  shown  at  Fig.  78,  and 
applied  as  seen  at  A,  Fig.  76.  This  will  give  stability  to 
the  hook,  and  allow  of  such  lifts  being  taken  with  compara- 
tive safety. 

Eope  tackle  is  not  as  common  in  the  foundries  now  as  it 
used  to  be  :  this  is  not  owing  to  any  particular  fault  of 
such  tackle,  but  because  of  the  difficulty  in  procuring  it  in 
good  shape.  It  is  not  every  man  who  knows  how  to  'splice ' 
a  rope,  make  an  'eye/  or  take  a  'blackwall  hitch';  so,  be- 
cause it  is  easier  to  order  a  chain  with  a  measurable  degree 
of  certainty  as  to  its  fitness  than  it  is  to  procure  the  rope 
equivalent  of  the  same,  the  former  has  become  the  rule 
nowadays. 


CHAINS,  BEAMS,  SLINGS,  HOOKS,  ROPES,  ETC.    169 

Still,  this  in  no  sense  robs  the  rope  of  its  merits :  they  are 
always  useful  adjuncts  to  foundry  practice  when  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  obtain  them.  The  single-spliced  sling  shown  at 
Fig.  79  can  be  made  to  serve  many  useful  purposes,  such  as 
drawing  patterns,  lifting  cores,  wood  flasks,  or  anything 
which  requires  an  uneven  hitch  to  be  made  rapidly.  Fig. 
80  shows  how  readily  it  can  be  hitched  fast  to  a  ring  and 
used  for  numberless  purposes,  either  end  up;  and  Fig.  81 


Fig.  82.          Fig.  83.        Fig.  84. 


Fig.  85. 


Fig.  86. 


shows  how  a  pair  of  light  can-hooks  might  be  improvised 
at  short  notice. 

Fig.  82  illustrates  the  kind  of  eye  to  be  used  when  rings, 
hooks,  or  slings  are  to  be  secured  thereon  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  heavy  loads.  Figs.  83  and  84  represent  how  to 
ornporarily  join  two  slings  or  two  eyes.  Fig.  85  will  serve 
to  show  how  handily  two  or  more  single  slings  can  be  made 
useful  in  ways  too  numerous  to  mention,  and  Fig.  86  is  a 
common  hitch  amongst  rierjrers,  its  one  excellent  feature 
being  that  it  can  be  made  and  unmade  almost  instantly. 


170  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING 
CASTINGS. 


THERE  is  no  other  department  of  the  moulder's  trade  in 
which,  aTiomalons  as  it  may  appear,  the  average  mechanic 
shows  so  much  density  as  in  the  subject  of  pouring  or  fill- 
ing the  moulds  with  molten  iron.  This  seems  a  startling 
announcement  to  make,  in  view  of  the  great  importance 
given  to  this  subject  by  all  who  are  intelligently  conver- 
sant with  the  art  of  moulding;  but  the  fact  remains  never- 
theless, and  can  be  proved  every  day  by  careful  observation 
in  our  foundries. 

What  can  be  more  ridiculous  than  to  see  the  greatest 
care  exercised  in  the  construction  of  a  mould,  every  precau- 
tion being  used  that  not  a  particle  of  dirt  remain,  even  in 
its  remotest  parts;  and  yet,  strange  to  say,  this  same  care- 
ful (?)  moulder,  after  all  the  solicitude  he  has  unmistakably 
manifested  to  make  a  clean  mould,  will  spoil  the  casting,  by 
leaving  all  consideration  of  runners  until  the  last  moment, 
when  he  seizes  a  rude  piece  of  curved  tin,  and  at  once  pro- 
ceeds to  give  an  exhibition  of  carving  sand,  utterly  oblivi- 
ous of  the  fact  that  he  may  make  or  mar  the  whole  job  at 
this  particular  time,  and  heedless  of  the  warnings  of  such 
of  his  fellow-workmen  as  may  have  already  discovered  that 
dirty  runners  make  dirty  castings,  110  matter  how  clean 
the  mould  may  be. 

In  order  to  emphasize  the  above,  I  would  here  say  that 
where  the  object  aimed  for  is  to  produce  clean  castings,  all 
such  contemptible  subterfuges  as  gate-cutters,  improvised 
out  of  tin,  copper,  or  sheet  brass,  should  be  at  once  and  for- 
ever abolished ;  as  well  might  we  expect  molten  iron  to  run 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        171 

uphill  voluntarily,  as  imagine  that  clean  iron  can  be  de- 
livered to  the  mould  through  gates  which  have  been  dug 
into  a  wet  joint  without  regard  to  either  cleanliness  or 
proportion. 

Whatever  care  is  needed  to  secure  a  clean  casting  should 
be  extended  to  the  gates  also.  When  the  mould  is  made, 
every  precaution  is  taken  to  insure  a  surface  on  which  the 
metal  can  rest  undisturbed;  if  the  same  precautions  were 
taken  for  the  runners  and  gates  also,  we  should  find  a  dif- 
ference immediately. 

All  leaders  and  gates  should,  where  practicable,  be  formed 
by  patterns  having  the  smoothest  face  possible;  and  wher- 
ever it  is  possible  to  reach  them,  their  surfaces  should  re- 
ceive the  same  careful  attention  as  the  mould. 

The  indiscriminate  gouging  out  of  so-called  'spray 
gates '  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  anxiety  experienced  in 
architectural  foundries  from  crooked  castings  and  other- 
wise, and  where  a  similar  practice  is  tolerated  amongst  gen- 
eral jobbing  work,  clean  castings  are  simply  an  impossibil- 
ity. In  the  former  instance  gates  are  cut  at  haphazard, 
regardless  of  proportion,  and  with  such  manifest  ignorance 
of  the  requirements  that  the  casting  is  lost,  either  from 
lack  of  volume  in  the  runner,  or  the  opposite  extreme  is 
obtained  from  gates  of  such  magnitude  as  will  draw  the 
casting  out  of  shape,  or,  as  very  often  happens,  break  it 
altogether;  in  the  latter  case  clean  work  is  made  utterly 
impossible,  on  account  of  the  large  proportion  of  dirt  which 
forms  in  these  rude  and  uncouth  expedients. 

To  correctly  locate  and  determine  the  best  methods  of 
running  is,  to  my  mind,  one  of  the  chief  elements  in  the 
art  of  moulding.  If  proper  attention  was  given  to  this  im- 
portant subject  it  would  develop  a  line  of  thought  and 
action  to  which  most  moulders  have  hitherto  been  strangers. 
Too  frequently  the  exigencies  surrounding  a  job  make  it 
almost  impossible  to  adopt  methods  which  would  give  per- 


172  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

feet  results,  and  I  am  free  to  confess  that  cost  sometimes 
interferes  with  the  adoption  of  means  which  are  absolute 
and  certain ;  still,  that  need  not  deter  us  from  ascertaining, 
if  possible,  what  are  the  right  principles  which,  if  faithfully 
observed,  will  assure  success  in  this  very  important  par- 
ticular. 

Honor  demands  that  full  discussion  be  given  this  sub- 
ject; a  mere  generalizing  fails  to  exhibit  its  numerous  dif- 
ficulties: and  no  one  will  deny  that  at  this  day  serious 
defects  in  castings  (carefully  concealed)  might  be  averted  if 
more  conscientiousness  were  displayed  on  the  part  of  both 
employers  and  their  aids.  How  many  castings  enter  into 
the  construction  of  buildings,  and  form  parts  of  the  very 
elaborate  and  ingenious  mechanical  contrivances  in  con- 
stant course  of  erection,  which  would  never  have  had  a 
place  there  if  those  in  authority  had  been  cognizant  of  the 
many  flaws  existing  internally,  most  of  which  might  have 
been  avoided  if  correct  methods  of  pouring  had  been  fol- 
lowed ! 

Castings  having  external  blemishes  may  be  dealt  with 
according  to  the  judgment  or  conscience  of  the  firm  which 
make  them;  but  internal  blemishes,  caused  by  inordinate 
quantities  of  dirt  lodged  in  critical  parts  (a  result  in  most 
instances  of  faulty  pouring);  gas-holes,  equally  danger- 
ous, which  a  judicious  arrangement  of  gates  might  have 
prevented,-  these,  coupled  with  the  countless  errors  arising 
from  imperfect  feeding  to  parts  having  dissimilar  magni- 
tudes, ought,  I  think,  to  suggest  the  propriety  of  giving 
this  subject  a  place  second  to  none  in  foundry  economics. 

Plainly  stated,  the  science  of  filling  moulds  with  molten 
iron  consists  of  three  grand  principles,  viz.:  first,  iliat 
the  mould  must  lie  filled  evenly,  with  molten  iron  of  equal 
temperature  tJirouf/hout ;  second,  that  such  iron  be  dis- 
tributed by  means  which  xhall  cause,  the  least  amount  of 
friction  on  the  surface  of  the  mould  ;  and,  third,  that  the 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEELING.       173 

molten  iron  he  freed  from  all  its  impurities  lefore  it  enters 
the  mould. 

How  this  may  be  accomplished  will,  no  doubt,  be  a  mat- 
ter too  tedious  for  some  to  examine  into,  but  there  are 
others  who  may  be  willing  to  study  the  subject  earnestly; 
to  such  the  following  will  be  of  interest. 

In  order  to  a  clear  understanding  of  all  the  points  con- 
nected with  the  very  important  matter  under  considera- 
tion, it  will  be  necessary  to  take  it  in  detail,  beginning 
with  'open-sand'  and  common  covered  work, — which 
means  all  such  castings  as  do  not  require  finishing,  only 
of  such  a  nature  as  can  be  accomplished  with  the  paint- 
brush,— extending  the  inquiry  until  we  have  covered  the 
whole  ground,  including  such  castings  as  must  of  necessity 
be  free  from  spot  or  blemish. 

Castings  in  'open  sand'  (meaning  all  such  as  are  cast 
without  covering)  are  not  nearly  as  numerous  as  they  for- 
merly were,  and  this  not  because  of  any  particular  fault 
inherent  to  the  system,  but  rather  that  there  are  so  few 
men  who  are  competent  to  make  this  class  of  work  success- 
fully. Consequently,  jobs  are  often  covered,  at  an  aug- 
mented cost,  which  might  have  been  saved  to  the  founder 
or  his  customer  had  the  needed  help  for  the  production  of 
such  work  been  on  hand.  It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say 
that  the  chief  trouble  with  open-sand  work  is  the  pouring; 
when  this  is  thoroughly  understood,  all  other  things  being 
equal,  very  good  work  may  be  produced  by  these  means. 

I  have  seen  excellent  furnace-fronts,  weighing-machine 
tables,  large  flooring- plates,  etc.,  cast  in  open  sand;  and  it 
comes  very  forcibly  to  my  mind  when  on  one  occasion  I 
cast  the  rim  of  a  heavy  fly-wheel  with  wrought-iron  arms 
very  successfully  in  the  same  way.  As  previously  stated, 
the  pouring  is  the  trouble  in  a  majority  of  cases. 

Supposing  a  plate  be  required  7  feet  by  7  feet,  or  7  feet 
diameter  and  f  inch  thick:  the  usual  practice  is  to  cut 


174 


THE  1RON-FO  UNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


guides  at  intervals  round  the  edge  correct  to  depth.  Some 
one  or  more  is  set  to  watch  these  guides  and  check  the 
further  flow  of  metal  when  the  supposed  height  is  reached ; 
but  a  very  limited  knowledge  of  such  things  is  sufficient  to 
convince  us  that  this  kind  of  practice  is  very  unsure,  for 
usually  on  these  occasions  more  than  one  ladle  would  be 
used  for  pouring  with,  and  the  feeling  of  uncertainty  which 
exists  prevents  unity  of  action;  consequently  the  plate  is 


Fig.  87. 

invariably  imperfect,  if  not  bad  altogether,  being  either  too 
thick  or  too  thin,  or  perhaps  thick  and  thin  in  parts. 

To  obviate  all  this  uncertainty,  and  consequent  loss  and 
disgrace,  let  a  good  mould  be  prepared,  having  the  edges 
made  up  very  much  in  excess  of  the  thickness  required, 
after  which  proceed  to  construct  a  runner  at  one  corner, 
convenient  for  quick  handling  of  the  ladle,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  87.  The  runner  shown  is  for  the  square  plate,  and  is 
set  to  run  along  one  of  its  sides.  Spare  no  pains  in  form- 
ing it  after  the  manner  shown;  have  width  sufficient  to 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        175 

permit  a  stream  2  feet  wide,  with  a  gradual  curving  sur- 
face from  the  back  downwards.  As  the  iron  rushes  over 
the  edge  it  is  apt  to  carry  it  away  if  made  up  with  green 
saud;  to  prevent  this  casualty,  make  the  edge  at  this  spot 
with  a  dry-sand  core,  as  seen  at  A. 

For  all  plates  answering  to  the  dimensions  given,  one 
ladle  will  be  sufficient  for  pouring  with  (hot  fluid  iron  be- 
ing, of  course,  indispensable),  in  which  the  exact  quantity 
of  iron,  neither  more  nor  less,  must  be  tapped.  It  will  now 
be  seen  why  the  sides  are  to  be  made  up  high.  Having 
the  correct  amount  of  iron  in  the  ladle,  it  only  remains  to 


Fig.  88. 

pour  it  briskly  down  the  incline  of  the  runner,  when  the 
stream  will  strike  the  opposite  corner  with  a  force  suffi- 
cient to  drive  it  at  right  angles  to  the  next  corner,  and  so 
on;  being  urged  by  the  constant  supply  behind,  it  whirls 
uninterruptedly  around  the  periphery,  and  finally  settles 
itself  evenly  all  over,  and  all  this  without  the  least  anxiety 
on  the  part  of  the  operator,  whose  only  business  it  is  to 
empty  the  contents  of  the  ladle  into  the  mould  with  the 
greatest  possible  dispatch,  and  leave  it  to  settle  of  its  own 
accord. 

Figs.  88  and  89  are  plan  and  elevation  of  the  same  runne 


176 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


when  applied  to  a  round  plate.  The  core  for  protecting 
the  edge  is  seen  at  A,  Fig.  89.  It  will  be  observed  that  this 
runner  is  set  tangential  to  the  circle,  the  idea  being  to 
strike  the  edge,  which  must  be  made  up  high,  as  seen  at 
B.  This  causes  a  rapid  rotation  of  the  molten  mass,  which 
ultimately  settles  or  rests  at  an  even  surface  all  over,  all 
anxiety  as  to  correct  thickness  being  removed,  as  before, 
by  having  the  exact  quantity  of  iron  in  the  ladle. 


;  j'./r.Vvi'  ~-  '.  •   '•'.' ~"  '"  "  *  American  Mwhinitt 


Fig.  89. 

When  it  is  desired  to  make  a  casting  in  open  sand,  the 
lower  side  of  which  offers  some  difficulty  on  account  of  ribs, 
hubs,  Ings,  or  brackets  which  must  be  cast  thereon,  ad- 
vantage may  be  taken  of  the  method  of  running  shown  at 
Fig.  90.  It  will  at  once  be  seen  that  by  placing  one  or 
more  of  these  runners  at  such  parts  as  will  provide  for  a 
steady  flow  of  iron  into  the  mould  the  greatest  nicety  may 
be  obtained,  as  any  degree  of  pressure  can  be  had  by  simply 
increasing  or  diminishing  the  height  of  the  runner  basin 
BB.  These  runners  can  be  made  very  readily  in  dry  sand, 
as  shown  at  A. 

The  almost  universal  condemnation  of  open-sand  work 
arises  from  the  fact  that  moulders  are  cognizant  of  their 
shortcomings  in  this  particular,  and  endeavor  to  hide  behind 
a  general  depreciation  of  possibilities;  but  it  is,  nevertheless, 
certain  that,  if  the  system  is  worked  for  all  it  is  worth,  very 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        177 

much  of  our  work  might  be  simplified,  with  a  consequent 
reduction  in  cost  of  manufacture. 

We  will  now  pass  to  a  consideration  of  some  of  the  evils 


Fig.  90. 

connected  with  the  pouring  of  thin  covered  plates.  Figs. 
91,  92,  93,  and  94  are  intended  to  show  the  faults  arising 
from  the  almost  criminally  bad  methods  usually  resorted 
to  for  running  flat  work,  whether  for  rough  castings  or  for 
such  as  require  planing. 

I  have  purposely  placed  the  runners  in  Fig.  91  in  about 
the  same  slipshod  manner  that  ordinarily  prevails  at  every 
foundry  where  special  prominence  is  not  given  to  the  sub- 
ject of  running;  runners  A,  B,  C,  and  D  are  sprays  of  the 
common  type,  and,  as  seen,  are  placed  without  any  pre- 
tension to  system  or  method.  A  careful  analysis  of  this 
figure  will  help  to  solve  some  of  the  problems  which  are 
constantly  puzzling  the  anxious  moulder:  observe  that 


178 


THE  IKON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


runner  A  is  set  on  the  right-hand  corner,  with  the  end 
spray  marked  1  connecting  with  the  casting  at  the  end, 
whilst  all  the  others  are  removed  towards  the  centre  in 
varying  distances.  The  shade-lines  issuing  from  each  gate, 
and  spreading  out  in  opposite  directions,  serve  to  show  u& 
the  direction  of  the  various  streams  as  they  enter  the  mould, 
whilst  the  difference  in  depth  of  shade^  caused  by  the  inter- 


.  91. 


section  of  the  lines,  represents  the  commingling  of  the 
streams  at  the  point  of  juncture. 

A  little  reflection  will  serve  to  show  that,  because  sprays 
2  and  3  are  so  far  removed  from  each  other,  the  spaces  E, 
Ft  G,  etc.,  are  left  to  be  filled  after  the  molten  iron 
has  spent  its  heat  and  lost  most  of  the  force  with  which  it 
first  entered  the  mould,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  all 
other  parts  of  the  plate  where  the  shade-lines  do  not  reach, 
even  the  spaces  between  the  sprays  showing  at  times  con- 
clusive evidence  of  the  lack  of  pressure  and  heat. 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        179 

To  expect  that  a  casting  poured  in  direct  violation  of 
all  the  laws  which  govern  in  this  case  should  be  straight, 
is  simply  preposterous;  they  never  are,  and  yet  some 
persist  in  their  ignorant  course,  and  wonder  why  they 
should  always  have  so  much  trouble  with  their  plates. 

Is  it  not  plain  that  long  before  the  corner  served  by 
gates  A  and  B  (with  a  good  supply  of  hot  iron  from  the 
commencement  of  pouring)  could  be  set,  the  corners  E 
and  H  (hardly  filled  with  dull  iron  at  the  last)  would  have 


Fig.  92. 

become  cold  by  comparison,  and  shrinkage  begun  ?  In 
addition  to  which  there  are  the  accompanying  '  cold  shuts ' 
incident  to  such  practice,  which  of  themselves  are  suffi- 
cient to  cause  crooked  work,  as  a  few  vibrations  are  all  that 
is  necessary  to  cause  an  open  fracture  sometimes,  thus 
proving  that  '  cold  shut '  practically  means  fracture  pure 
and  simple,  and  should  always  be  considered  such. 

At  Fig.  92  is  shown  a  plate  one  half  the  width  of  Fig.  91, 
with  the  sprays  cut  closer  and  more  equally  along  the 
entire  length,  excepting  at  A]  this  being  purposely  left 


180 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


out  to  show  how  important  it  is  that  gates  should  be  cut 
as  seen  at  B. 

As  indicated  by  the  shade-lines,  heat  and  force  are  about 
expended  at  CC,  leaving  the  furthermost  side  to  be  filled 
with  iron  at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  where  the 
gates  are,  thus  producing  unequal  rates  of  cooling,  with  the 
consequent  drawing  out  of  shape.  As  will  be  noticed,  the 
spaces  between  the  sprays  exist  in  this  case  as  in  the  other; 
and  one  only  needs  to  make  very  careful  inspection  of  plates 
cast  this  way  to  detect  in  some  instances  very  serious 


Fig.  93. 

flaws,  which  can  be  overcome  only  by  a  continuous  gate 
extending  the  full  length  of  the  leader. 

The  first  of  the  three  conditions  stated  at  the  outset  is 
violated  in  both  the  above  instances,  because,  as  shown, 
these  methods  fail  to  "  fill  the  mould  with  iron  of  equal 
temperature  throughout."  We  will  now  consider  just  how 
near  it  is  practicable  to  do  so  in  this  instance.  Fig.  93 
shows  the  same  casting  with  16  runners  equally  divided 
over  the  upper  surface,  and  Fig.  94  is  a  plan  view  of  the 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        181 


cope  and  runner  box,  when  it  is  intended  to  pour  such  a 
casting  with  one  ladle;  a  very  practicable  method,  and  one 
which  I  have  successfully  adopted  on  all  occasions  when  it 
has  been  desired  to  produce  a  straight  casting  which  had  to 
be  planed  on  both  sides. 

By  making  the  basin  capacious,  and  forming  the  leaders 
as  seen,  such  a  runner  can  be  filled  almost  instantly,  with- 
out danger  of  carrying  any  of  the  dirt  down  into  the 
mould. 

If  Fig.  93  be  carefully  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that,  in- 


Fig.  94. 

stead  of  straggling  streams  issuing  from  the  gates,  as  at 
Figs.  91  and  92,  we  have  a  constant  supply  of  molten  iron, 
of  ( equal  temperature,'  spreading  itself  over  the  whole 
surface,  and  thus,  as  near  as  practicable,  meeting  the  de- 
mands of  the  first  proposition. 

When  necessity  compels  an  uneven  distribution  of  the 
chief  runners,  auxiliary  ones  may  be  placed  in  just  such 
places  as  are  likely  to  need  them,  as  shown  at  /,  Fig.  91. 

Fig.  90  shows  a  method  of  pouring  by  introducing  the 
iron  into  the  mould  in  an  upward  direction,  and  is  prefer- 
able in  all  cases  when  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  bottom  of 


182  THE  IEON-FOUNDEH  SUPPLEMENT. 

green-sand  moulds  intact,  there  being  less  friction  on  the 
parts  than  is  caused  by  the  other  modes  of  running. 

The  style  of  basin  is  common;  yet,  common  as  it  is,  there 
are  very  few  moulders  who  have  spent  sufficient  thought 
upon  its  making  to  enable  them  to  produce  one  correctly. 
In  the  first  place,  the  box  itself  should  be  of  iron  (not  wood ; 
this  is  both  dangerous  and  costly),  with  a  bottom  ex- 
tending some  distance  from  the  front,  as  seen  at  C;  this 
allows  for  the  box  to  overhang  a  cope  without  the  necessity 
of  banking  behind.  In  addition  to  having  the  basin  a  little 
deeper  at  the  drop,  so  that  the  stream  from  the  ladle  may 
fall  iuto  iron  and  not  on  the  sand,  it  is  well  to  leave  ample 
space  in  the  leader  and  around  the  down-runner,  as  a  too 
limited  area  at  these  parts  causes  a  slackness  at  the  mouth, 
and  the  runner  t draws  air' all  through  the  cast,  simply 
because  the  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demand. 

The  figure  also  serves  for  showing  how  to  make  a  flow- 
off  gate  when  it  is  desired  to  run  off  at  as  low  a  point  as 
possible.  The  flow-off  gate  is  formed  at  D  and  covered  by 
core  E,  which  extends  beyond  the  edge  of  the  flask;  the 
gate  is  fully  formed  after  the  cope  has  been  closed  as 
shown. 

Figs.  95  and  96  illustrate  modes  of  running  which  may  be 
practised  advantageously  on  all  castings  with  deep  sides 
when  it  is  desired  to  accomplish  good  work  of  this  class  in 
green  sand.  It  is  well  known  that  when  all  the  iron  for  a 
heavy  piece  is  poured  through  one  runner  direct  into  the 
mould,  there  is  always  indubitable  evidence  of  the  extreme 
test  which  the  runner  end  is  called  upon  to  endure:  all 
such  parts  as  are  farthest  from  the  runner  retaining  in 
some  measure  their  original  form,  whilst  those  parts  near- 
est are  only  made  passable  by  subsequent  cleaning  and 
chipping. 

To  secure  an  equal  distribution  of  the  iron,  and  thus  in 
some  measure  avoid  the  evil  spoken  of,  let  runners  similar 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        183 

to  those  shown  at  Figs.  95  and  96  be  made.  Leader  A,  Fig. 
95,  is  intended  to  be  formed  by  a  pattern  set  in  position, 
and  horn  gates  B  leading  therefrom  to  the  mould  (7.  The 
main  runner,  shown  by  broken  lines  at  D,  can  be  set  at 
any  part  of  the  leader  which  may  be  the  most  convenient. 
One  essential  feature  in  this  system,  when  the  cleanest 


Fig.  95. 


Fig.  96. 


work  is  desired,  is  to  have  the  leader  extend  past  the  end 
gate,  as  seen  at  E,  Fig.  95 :  this  allows  of  the  first  rush  of 
iron,  with  its  accompanying  dirt,  finding  a  lodgment  there, 
the  casting  being,  of  course,  benefited  just  that  much. 

The  mode  of  preparation  for  this  green-sand  runner  is 
clearly  indicated  by  the  figure,  and  Fig.  96  -shows  how  to 
make  a  runner  equal  in  efficiency  when  it  is  not  desired 


184 


THE  lEON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


to  adopt  such  elaborate  means.  Cores  A  are  made  in  sec- 
tions and  set  end  to  end  on  a  prepared  bed,  and  cores  B, 
with  holes  for  down-runners,  are  set  thereon,  thus  forming 
a  complete  runner,  which  only  requires  ordinary  care  to 
make  it  a  success  every  time. 

Fig.  97  shows  an  approved  style  of  draw -runner  which 
has  undoubted  advantages  over  the  common  straight  ones, 
indicated  by  broken  lines  at  AB.  It  will  be  seen  that,  in 
using  a  runner  which  connects  with  the  mould  at  right 
angles,  there  is  always  more  or  less  danger  from  drawing 


air,  if  any  temporary  stoppage  should  occur  in  the  pouring 
prior  to  the  mould  being  filled  above  A.  By  the  method 
illustrated  the  first  portion  of  iron  fills  the  runner  as  high 
as  B9  thus  precluding  all  possibility  of  danger  from  that 
source.  Much  of  the  danger  from  scabbing  may  be  averted 
by  placing  dry-sand  cores  where  the  iron  rushes  past,  as 
seen  at  C. 

Sometimes  it  is  found  convenient  to  run  a  deep-sided 
mould  directly  opposite  to  one  of  its  sides,  in  which  case, 
owing  to  the  great  commotion  caused  by  the  rebound,  it  is 
advisable  to  protect  the  surface  in  the  immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  the  gates  by  having  dry-sand  cores,  as  shown  at 
Fig.  98. 


POURING,  FLO  WING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        18,*) 


The- subject  of  runners  would  be  far  from  complete  were 
the  very  useful  ones  shown  at  Fig.  99  to  be  omitted.  These 
are  of  universal  application  amongst  a  miscellaneous  class 
of  jobbing  work,  and  where  the  mould  is  not  too  deep  may 
be  relied  on  for  producing  clean  work,  because,  being  thin, 
they  allow  of  the  basin  being  filled  before  time  is  given  for 
any  dirt  to  pass  downwards  into  the  mould.  They 


are 


best  when  made  about  3J"  X  f",  with  a  very  slight  taper, 
and  much  trouble  in  steadying  may  be  saved  by  having 


Fig.  99. 


Fig     00 


them  spiked  as  shown  at  Fig.  990,  A  and  B  being  simply 
common  nails  driven  in  a  short  distance,  and  the  remaining 
part  filed  to  a  point. 

The  arrangement  of  drop-runners  does  not  seem  to 
receive  that  amount  of  patronage  which  I  think  it  should 
do.  When  the  bottom  of  the  mould  can  be  made  to  bear 
the  dropping  test,  it  must  be  plain  to  any  one  that  this 
mode  has  merits  which  none  of  the  rest  possess,  inasmuch 
as  the  distance  from  the  basin  to  the  mould  is  reduced  to 


186 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


a  minimum,  and  consequently  there  is  less  area  over  which 
the  metal  must  pass  (and  gather  dirt)  before  it  enters  the 
mould. 

The  crank  shown  at  Fig.  100  is  a  good  illustration  of  how 
particularly  handy  and  effective  this  mode  of  running  is: 
the  basin  AA  is  made  large,  and  extends  beyond  the 
runners;  this,  as  previously  noticed,  permits  the  iron  to  be 
poured  with  force  sufficient  to  carry  everything  before  it 
over  and  beyond  the  drop-gates;  the  increasing  volume  of 
iron  serves  to  keep  the  dirt  floating  on  the  surface,  whilst 
the  mould  is  being  fed  with  clean  iron  which  drops  into 
the  molten  mass  below  in  the  easiest  and  cleanest  manner 


Fig.  101. 

possible.  No  other  mode  of  running  can  compare  with 
this  whenever  it  is  practicable  to  adopt  it;  and  when  green- 
sand  moulds  make  it  impracticable,  why  not  make  the 
mould  in  dry  sand,  and  thus  secure  all  the  advantages  of 
this  very  excellent  system  ? 

Steam-cylinders  cast  horizontally  have  always  been  a 
drug  in  the  market  on  account  of  the  danger  of  losing  the 
piece  from  dirt  which  inevitably  collects  under  the  body 
core;  and  rather  than  go  to  the  expense  of  boring  out  extra 
stock,  purposely  allowed  for  the  dirt  to  collect  in,  firms  are 
to-day  making  large  numbers  of  small  cylinders  in  dry 
sand,  in  order  that  they  may  be  readily  cast  in  a  vertical 
position. 


POURING,  FLOWTNG-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        187 

One  way  of  overcoming  this  difficulty  is  shown  at  Fig. 
101.  Let  a  main  runner  A  connect  with  a  circular  runner 
B,  prepared  in  the  core,  and  extending  round  the  same  as 
far  as  C\  from  this  circular  runner  a  gate  must  be  formed  (in 
the  core  also)  connecting  with  the  casting  after  the  manner 
shown  at  D\  also  prepare  a  receiver  or  bottom  head,  so  to 
speak,  as  shown  at  E,  in  both  elevations.  The  first  rush 
of  iron  down  B  will  tend  to  carry  the  dirt  past  the  gate  D 
and  round  the  core  towards  (7,  where,  if  the  pressure  is 
kept  constant,  it  will  be  held;  the  mould  (being  inclined 
about  6  in.  in  3  feet)  will  give  an  impetus  that  will  carry  the 
first  iron  with  force  down  to  the  receiver  E,  where  what- 
ever dirt  may  have  washed  downwards  will  be  firmly  im- 
prisoned. 

Fig.  102  illustrates  a  system  of  dams  set  before  the 
castings  when  it  is  desired  to  produce  clean  work  from 
a  spray.  When  best  results  are  looked  for,  all  such  gates 
should  be  connected  with-  the  patterns  on  a  matchboard, 
so  as  to  insure  a  good  hard  surface  for  the  molten  iron 
to  pass  over.  Gates  cut  with  tools  are,  as  before  stated, 
untrustworthy  on  account  of  the  soft,  broken  surface  yield- 
ing to  the  extreme  heat  to  which  they  are  subjected,  and 
thus  forming  slag  that  invariably  finds  its  way  into  the 
casting. 

The  form  of  the  leader  in  this  instance  is  a  noteworthy 
feature:  the  iron  entering  at  A  travels  rapidly  along  the 
smooth,  round  surface  of  the  leader,  passing  the  gates,  and 
out  at  C,  carrying  a  large  proportion  of  the  dirt  along  with 
it;  whatever  portion  remains  is  held  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  leader  whilst  the  casting  is  being  fed  from  the  bot- 
tom. The  dams  D,  as  seen,  are  formed  with  cores,  and 
make  "assurance  doubly  sure"  by  checking  any  inflow  of 
dirt,  should  the  pouring  from  any  cause  be  lacking  in 
force. 

There  is  no  other  casting  that  has  helped  the  science  of 


188 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


running  as  much  as  the  governor-ball.  During  the  early 
part  of  my  apprenticeship  this  job  was  held  back  for  some 
particular  man,  who  alone  could  be  trusted  with  such  an 
important  job;  and  not  unfrequently  have  I  known  the 
best  men  to  fail  time  after  time  to  produce  a  casting  that 
was  clean  all  over  when  turned. 


m 

m 


Fig.  102. 

The  manner  of  running  a  ball  which  must  be  turned 
bright  is  shown  at  Fig.  103,  where  it  is  seen  that  the  metal 
passes  down  A  into  the  ball  at  B\  the  direction  given  the 
metal  by  this  form  of  ingate  causes  the  metal  to  revolve 
rapidly  in  the  mould,  and  this  causes  the  lighter  substances 
which  gather  on  the  surface  to  collect  towards  the  centre, 
as  indicated  by  the  arrows  in  the  plan,  to  be  ultimately 
ejected  at  the  riser  C. 

The  principle  involved  to  keep  the  ball  clean  must  natu- 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        189 

rally  suggest  the  propriety  of  filling  other  moulds  from  such 
a  ball  whilst  the  dirt  is  being  held  a  prisoner  in  the  middle 
of  the  swiftly  rotating  mass;  and  just  how  this  may  be 
accomplished  is  shown  at  Fig.  104,  where  a  number  of  cast- 
ings, directly  connected  with  a  central  ball,  may  be  fed 
with  comparatively  pure  iron,  with  no  possibility  of  dirt 


Fig.  103. 

other  than  may  be  gathered  within  their  own  limits.  Un- 
less in  large  castings,  there  need  be  no  riser  on  the  ball 
when  it  is  used  for  running  purposes. 

Fig.  105  shows  how  the  principle  may  be  made  general, 
and  used  for  almost  any  class  of  work. 

Fig.  105  illustrates  two  methods  of  running  pipes  or  col- 


190 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


umns  at  the  flanges,  the  gates  AA  being  intended  when  it 
is  desired  to  run  down  through  the  cope,  and  the  one  at  B 
to  be  used  when  it  is  thought  that  the  former  plan  would 
be  too  hard  on  the  mould  at  that  point. 
The  regulation  method  of  running  square  columns  is 


American  Machinist 


Fig.  104. 


Fig.  105. 

shown  at  Fig.  107.  All  such  columns  will  run  from  one 
end,  under  ordinary  head  pressure,  17  feet  at  one  inch  thick 
if  the  iron  is  in  good  condition;  beyond  this  it  is  unwise  to 
go,  especially  if  the  column  should  be  less  than  one  inch. 
I  speak  now  of  how  far  metal  will  reach  in  such  work;  but 
as  the  method  of  running  long  columns  all  from  one  end 
conflicts  with  the  first  principle  of  filling  moulds  with  iron 
of  equal  temperature,  it  is  very  evident  that  all  long  cast- 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        191 

ings  should  be  filled  from  both  ends.  The  wisdom  of  the 
above  always  strikes  us  the  more  forcibly  when  we  see  any 
violation  of  these  principles  result  in  a  cracked  casting. 


Ill 


Fig.  106. 


Keep  all  risers  away  from  brackets,  for  should  there  be 
but  a  very  slight  commotion  in  the  mould  the  bracket  is 
sure  to  suffer  if  the  disturbance  finds  a  vent  at  that  point. 

When  the  flask  will  admit  of  running  round  columns  at 


107. 


the  end,  it  is  by  all  means  the  best  plan  to  adopt;  and  the 
best  kind  of  runner  for  this  purpose  is  shown  at  Fig.  108, 
where  main  runners  AA  are  seen  to  connect  with  a  circular 
runner  B  cut  round  the  bearing,  and  entering  the  casting 


192 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


at  one  or  more  gates  ample  to  run  the  column  safely. 
Round  columns  will  run  18  feet  J  inch  thick  from  one 
end,  providing  all  other  things  are  favorable;  but  the  re- 
marks on  square  columns  apply  with  equal  force  to  round 
ones,  and  risks  should  not  be  taken. 

Sometimds  it  is  found  advisable  to  change  the  location 
of  the  runner;  if  this  must  be  done,  choose  some  flange  or 
collar  into  which  the  gates  can  be  directed,  either  on  the 
side,  as  seen  at  C,  or  dropped  down  as  at  D. 


Fig.  108. 

Fig.  108  shows  how  to  run  a  large  wheel  through  the  hub 
core.  The  centre  dry-sand  core,  with  a  hole  large  enough 
to  fill  the  mould  at  a  proper  rate,  rests  on  another  dry-sand 
core  in  which  the  requisite  gates  have  been  prepared.  To 
save  making  the  bottom  core,  holes  for  gates  may  be  made 
at  A9  indicated  by  broken  lines;  but  this  plan  is  somewhat 
risky  if  the  noses  against  which  the  iron  beats  are  not  made 
in  dry  sand,  as  seen  at  B. 

It  is  plain  that  a  wheel  filled  after  this  manner  is  prefer- 
able to  any  other,  as  it  makes  what  is  otherwise  a  critical 
job  a  very  safe  one,  and  insures  a  good  casting  every  time, 
at  least  so  far  as  the  running  is  concerned. 

Fig.  110  is  a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  spiral  drum,  or  at 
least  as  much  of  it  as  will  serve  the  purpose  of  showing  how 
to  arrange  for  a  system  of  bottom  gates,  when  such  gates 
must  be  made  in  the  pit  around  a  brick  mould.  Where  the 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        193 


Fig.  HO. 


194 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


pits  are  damp,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  the  gates 
protected  from  the  moisture. 

The  method  shown  needs  no  explanation  other  than  can 
be  discovered  by  a  careful  examination  of  the  figure.  AA 
are  the  gates  prepared  in  the  mould,  against  which  are  set 
cores  BB,  these  again  being  surmounted  by  other  cores,  as 
seen,  until  the  top  is  reached.  If  the  mould  is  unusually 
long,  and  there  is  danger  of  the  metal  becoming  too  slug- 


Fig.  HI. 

gish  to  fill  the  upper  parts  of  the  mould  correctly,  then 
apply  the  gates  on  the  top,  after  the  manner  as  fully  ex- 
plained in  "The  Iron  Founder,"  page  163. 

The  utility  of  feeding  castings  is  questioned  by  some; 
but  a  little  reflection  will,  I  am  sure,  lead  all  who  deny  its 
efficacy  to  see  the  erroneousness  of  their  conclusions. 

The  ball  shown  at  Fig.  Ill  is  supposed  to  be  12  inches  in 
diameter,  and  suppose  that  such  a  ball  was  cast  (without 
riser)  with  hot  iron,  and  left  to  cool  in  the  same  position 
it  was  cast :  it  is  certain  that  the  upper  surface  would  have 


POURING,  FLO  WING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        195 

fallen  in,  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  shrinkage  which 
would  have  taken  place  before  the  crust  was  firm  enough 
to  sustain  itself;  the  amount  of  shrinkage  would  of  course 
be  according  to  the  nature  of  the  iron  it  was  cast  with. 
Now  if  this  ball  when  cold  was  split  in  two  it  would  be 
found  that  the  upper  hemisphere  would  show  a  sponginess 
similar  to  that  seen  in  the  sectional  illustration  at  Fig.  112. 
The  figure  quoted  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  point  under 
consideration,  being  a  sectional  representation  of  a  piece  of 


Fig.  112. 


Fig.  113. 


roll  cast  from  inferior  iron  ;  the  internal  shrinkage,  unsup- 
ported by  any  system  of  feeding,  causing  the  sponginess  at 
the  heart  and  very  evident  fracture  at  the  neck. 

Mortars,  such  as  shown  at  Fig.  113,  were  formerly  cast 
solid,  with  a  shrink  head  from  A  up.  The  head  was  after- 
wards turned  off,  and  the  casting  bored  out  to  the  broken 
lines.  And  yet  with  the  head  cast  on,  as  shown,  it  was 
never  deemed  advisable  to  risk  a  cast  without  keeping  the 
heart  free  from  scum,  so  that  a  constant  supply  of  hot  iron 
could  be  introduced  to  fill  up  the  space  which  gradually 
forms  as  the  shrinkage  takes  place. 

Now  in  the  ball  shown  at  Fig.  Ill  we  endeavor  to  reach 
the  heart  of  the  casting  through  the  riser  A,  which  is  made 


196 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


no  larger  than  will  just  serve  the  purpose  of  feeding  the 
ball.  (In  the  former  instance  no  riser  was  supposed  to  be 
on.)  If  the  mould  now  under  consideration  was  left  to  take 
its  own  course  after  being  cast,  the  natural  feeding  would 
occur  as  long  as  the  iron  in  the  neck  of  the  riser  remained 
fluid ;  but,  as  shown  by  the  shaded  lines,  by  the  time  the 
neck  was  solid  there  would  still  remain  a  considerable  area 
of  iron  in  a  molten  condition,  and  it  is  at  this  juncture 
that  the  rod  B  gets  in  its  fine  work  by  simply  keeping  open 
a  communication  between  the  upper  and  lower  bodies  by  a 
constant  supply  of  hot  iron  from  the  cupola.  This  is  not, 
as  some  seem  to  think,  a  sort  of  pumping  or  forcing  of  the 


iron  below;  the  motion  of  the  rod  exercises  no  influence 
whatever,  only  to  preserve  a  free  channel  through  which 
the  hot  iron  can  pass  into  the  shrinking  mass  below. 

Excellent  results  may  be  obtained  by  pressure-feeding 
sometimes,  as  illustrated  at  Fig.  114,  which  figure  is  intended 
to  show  how  to  feed  the  solid  rim  of  a  gear-blank  by 
' freezing '  the  runner  A  immediately  the  mould  is  full,  and 
afterwards  pouring  hot  iron  alternately  down  risers  B  and 
(7,  so  regulating  the  operation  that  the  body  of  metal  below 


POURING,  FLOWING-OFF,  AND  FEEDING.        197 

at  D  may  be  kept  in  motion  as  long  as  it  remains  in  a  fluid 
state. 

The  possibilities  of  making  such  a  casting  solid  by  this 
method  of  feeding  are  considerably  enhanced  by  the  aug- 
mented head  pressure,  which  in  this  instance  is  1  foot  6 
inches  more  than  would  be  the  case  ordinarily.  Still  it 
must  be  evident  even  to  the  least  observant  that  this  method 
has  its  limits  of  usefulness  clearly  defined,  and  can  only 
be  resorted  to  when  the  riser  and  casting  are  of  equal 
magnitudes,  or  nearly  so. 

When  this  is  the  case  the  process  of  solidifying  proceeds 
equally  and  uninterruptedly  from  the  outside,  at  both  riser 
and  casting,  the  shrinkage  of  the  contracting  mass  being 
made  good  at  every  step  by  the  constant  and  increasing 
pressure  of  liquid  iron,  which  is  being  forced  through  from 
above;  but  it  must  be  observed  that  certainty  of  results 
can  only  be  reckoned  on  when  this  entire  operation  is  con- 
tinued until  the  point  of  congelation  is  reached. 

As  proof  of  the  above,  let  a  riser  of  the  same  dimensions 
be  applied  to  a  body  of  larger  area,  and  no  matter  how  hot 
the  supply  or  how  high  the  pressure,  the  riser  will  have 
congealed  long  before  the  heart  of  the  casting,  as  is  clearly 
demonstrated  at  Fig.  Ill,  making  it  absolutely  imperative 
that  the  feeding-rod  be  used,  as  heretofore  explained,  or 
that  pressure  and  area  of  riser  be  increased  commensurate 
with  the  increased  magnitude  of  the  casting. 


198  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS. 

HOW  TO   USE   A~$V   HOW   TO   AVOID   USING   THEM. 

As  long  as  moulds  are  made  v/ith  cores  forming  a  part  of 
thair  general  make-up,  we  must  accept  studs  and  chaplets 
as  a  necessary  evil.  Fully  recognizing  the  fact  that  they 
have  '  come  to  stay/  we  must  endeavor  to  use  them  with 
such  discrimination  as  will  give  us  the  maximum  of  good 
and  the  minimum  of  evil  attendant  upon  their  use. 

True,  their  use  may  be  entirely  discarded  in  many  jobs, 
if  it  be  thought  desirable  to  incur  the  expense  of  furnish- 
ing suitable  means  for  securing  the  work  without  them; 
and  it  is  always  in  order  that  a  good  moulder,  if  permitted, 
will  make  such  disposition  of  the  details  connected  with  his 
job  as  shall  in  some  instances  result  in  accomplishing  his 
work  independent  of  chaplets  altogether.  To  wilfully 
eschew  such  practice,  when  practicable,  is  a  superbness  of 
ignorance  simply  astounding;  nevertheless,  such  is  truly 
the  case,  and  the  fact  is  to  be  deplored. 

How  many  jobs,  at  very  little  outlay  for  cost,  might  be 
made  after  the  manner  shown  at  Fig.  115,  where  it  is  seen 
that  the  core,  formed  upon  a  true  barrel  A,  is  made  to  rest 
accurately,  in  finished  bearings,  at  each  end  of  an  extension 
or  outboard  B,  which  forms  in  this  case  part  of  the  flask, 
but  may  if  necessary  be  a  separate  device  to  be  firmly 
bolted  to  any  flask,  when  occasion  demands  such  practice ! 
The  manner  of  holding  the  core  is  shown  at  (7,  (7,  being 
simply  caps  which  grip  the  barrel  only,  and  are  bolted,  as 
seen.  When  such  a  mould  must  be  cast  on  end,  additional 
security  will  be  given  by  providing  a  collar  or  pin,  to  pre- 
vent any  possibility  of  the  barrel  sliding  in  either  direction. 

te  Oh,  well,"  says  some  one,  "I've  seen  that  done  before; 


STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS. 


199 


that's  simple  enough ;  "  all  of  which  I  grant.  But  surely  its 
very  simplicity  ought  to  suggest  a  more  frequent  adoption 
of  its  principles,  especially  when  we  remember  that  by  such 
means  we  are  enabled  to  discard  the  use  of  chaplets,  "a 
consummation  most  devoutly  to  be  wished "  in  all  cases. 
A  little  thought  expended  on  the  principles  involved  in 
this  simple  expedient  will  demonstrate  its  value  as  an  ex- 


rig.  115. 

cellent  device  for  saving  chaplets,  and,  what  is  far  better, 
saving  castings  also. 

Another  means  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  desirable 
end  is  to  secure  cores,  which  would  otherwise  need  chaplets, 
by  a  system  of  double  seatings.  (See  "  The  Iron  Founder," 
page  245,  where  cores  TTand  L  are  made  independent  of 
the  chaplet  shown,  by  just  such  an  arrangement  as  above 
advocated.) 

It  only  requires  .ordinary  ingenuity  to  make  the  latter 
method  available  in  hundreds  of  instances,  where  the  only 
seeming  possible  way  of  surmounting  the  difficulty  is  per- 
haps a  rusty  stud,  held  in  position  by  nails  picked  up  from 
the  foundry  floor. 

Avoid  rust  as  you  would  a  viper.     The  sudden  decom- 


200  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

position  of  -£$  of  an  inch  of  rust  spread  over  the  surface  of 
a  stud-plate  3"x  5"  will  produce  a  mould-destroying  shock, 
with  startling  effect  at  the  point  of  eruption,  and  extend- 
ing with  a  decreasing  force  to  a  distance  of  over  six  feet; 
and  bar-spaces  in  the  cope  6"  wide  and  10"  deep,  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  offending  plate,  will  be  blown  out 
with  terrible  effect  sometimes,  making  it  a  positive  danger 
to  use  such  carelessly  provided  tackle. 

This  element  of  danger  always  exists  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  rust  present,  and  whilst  a  small  amount  may 
not  possess  the  explosive  force  above  described,  the  gases 
generated  are  a  constant  source  of  annoyance  and  loss,  caus- 
ing blown  places  in  parts  of  the  casting  which  are  not 
easily  located ;  and  consequently  we  often  hear  of  the  failure 
of  a  pump  or  cylinder  after  the  engine  has  been  running 
some  time,  and  all  was  considered  perfect.  Nine  times  out 
of  ten  the  verdict  is, '  rusty  chaplets/ 

Another  illustration  of  how  to  avoid  chaplets  in  special 
cases  is  shown  at  page  197  of  "  The  Iron  Founder,"  where 
cores  D  and  E  are  seen  to  be  secured  by  means  equally 
effective,  yet  different  in  principle.  The  method  of  join- 
ing cores  to  front  plates,  as  there  illustrated,  is  eminently 
useful,  and  might  with  great  advantage  be  more  generally 
adopted  for  a  wide  range  of  work,  both  in  loam  and  sand. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  moulder's  trade  which  offers 
more  opportunities  for  the  inventive  genius  of  the  me- 
chanic than  does  this  particular  one  of  avoiding  the  use  of 
chaplets,  and  when  we  think  of  the  good  accruing  from 
such  practice  it  ought  to  encourage  every  one  interested 
to  a  pursuance  of  such  improved  methods,  even  if  the  cost 
of  production  be  increased  thereby.  What  if  "  first  cost " 
be  increased !  the  results  will  more  than  compensate  for  the 
additional  outlay. 

If  it  should  occur  that  chaplets  must  be  used  at  places 
where  the  casting  requires  to  be  absolutely  sound,  the  studs 


STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS.  201 

necessary  for  the  job  may  be  rammed  in  the  centre  of  a 
round  core,  thoroughly  dried,  and  coated  with  lead.  This 
will  leave  a  clean  hole  in  the  casting,  which,  if  necessary, 
may  be  tapped  for  plugging.  Another  method,  when  using 
plain  stem  chaplets  for  thin  castings,  is  to  glue  two  or 
three  thicknesses  of  thin  paper  on  the  end  which  enters 
the  casting,  with  a  further  coating  of  lead,  all  well  dried. 
This  will  keep  the  molten  iron  from  direct  contact  with 
the- naked  chaplet,  whilst  the  nature  of  the  covering  used 
will  serve  to  soften  the  surrounding  iron,  making  the  sub- 
sequent tapping  of  the  hole  more  easy  of  accomplishment. 
Recognizing  the  fact  that  we  cannot  escape  the  use  of 
studs  and  chaplets,  and  this  in  a  large  measure  sometimes,  it 


116.  Fig.  117.  Fig.  ,,8. 


behooves  us  to  select  and  rightly  use  such  as  are  best  quali- 
fied to  fulfil  the  mission  for  which  they  were  originally 
designed.  Figs.  116  and  117  represent  the  common  solid 
stud  chaplets,  1|"  diameter,  to  be  used  when,  because  of 
danger  from  melting  or  from  a  lack  of  strength,  any  of  the 
others  would  be  too  light.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
studs  will  melt  before  a  constant  stream  of  very  hot  iron; 
even  solid  ones  need  protecting  sometimes,  which  latter  can 
be  effectively  done  by  coating  the  stud,  as  before  directed. 

Fig.  118  is  a  solid  stub,  lj"x  3",  for  use  under  heavy 
loads,  where,  owing  to  the  form  of  the  mould,  an  ordinary 
tud  could  only  with  difficulty  be  made  to  stand.  The  tail  A 


202 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


can  be  pushed  into  the  sand  or  loam,  and  made  good  around ; 
by  this  means  the  stud  is  held  firmly  in  its  place  without 
fear  of  dislocation.  A  very  useful  modification  of  1 16  and 
117  is  shown  at  Figs.  119  and  120,  which  represent  similar 
sizes  to  those  quoted,  and  may  be  any  degree  of  strength 
desirable:  some  very  light  jobs  would  require  them  no 
thicker  than  T*g-  of  an  inch.  To  make  these  in  cast  iron, 
make  them  in  strings  carrying  the  upper  plates  A  in  the 
cope,  the  bottom  plates  B  being  arranged  on  a  core  print 


Fig.   120. 


Fig.   121. 


corresponding  to  the  depth  between  A  and  B,  the  cores  for 
which  must  be  pierced  at  correct  intervals  by  the  connect- 
ing bar  C.  Where  studs  of  this  kind  have  been  introduced 
for  the  first  time,  it  invariably  happens  that  their  ability 
is  overestimated,  and  numbers  of  castings  are  lost  before 
it  is  discovered  that  these  light-cast  studs  melt  away  most 
miraculously  when  set  before  the  stream. 

I  have  shown  at  Fig.  121  how  to  make  studs,  similar  to  the 
preceding,  out  of  wrought  iron :  it  will  be  seen  that  bars  A 
and  A  have  been  riveted  to  plate  B,  which,  being  prepared 
like  plate  C,  is  very  easy  to  do;  C  is  now  set  on  and  se- 
cured by  riveting  also,  the  parts  at  DD  being  left  a  little 
long  for  the  purpose.  Where  it  is  thought  that  cast  iron 
would  be  too  risky,  these  may  be  substituted,  as  they  can 
be  made  of  any  desired  strength  very  quickly. 


STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS. 


203 


Fig.  122  is  a  common  spring  chaplet  intended  for  binding 
and  steadying  only;  the  usefulness  of  these  good  chaplets 
is  in  most  places  greatly  marred  on  account  of  the  irno- 
rance  displayed  in  their  manufacture.  Ask  for  a  springer, 
and  you  will  probably  receive  a  piece  of  rusty  hoop  iron 
bent  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe;  this,  of  course,  answers  the 
purpose  of  steadying  the  core,  but  how  unsightly  the  scar 


Fig. 122. 


Fig.  123. 


Fig.  125. 


it  leaves  on  the  outside  of  the  casting  !  This  objectionable 
feature  can  be  easily  overcome  by  a  good  blacksmith,  or  by 
the  moulder  himself,  should  the  former  worthy  function- 
ary be  non  est  at  that  place,  by  following  the  instructions 
given,  and  fully  illustrated  by  the  following  figures. 

At  Fig.  129  the  vise  jaws  hold  a  piece  of  iron  equal  in 
dimensions  (less  the  thickness  of  the  hoop  iron)  to  the 
thickness  of  the  chaplet  required,  against  which  the  hoop 
iron  has  been  jammed  and  hammered  over,  Fig.  130  show- 
ing the  position  of  the  same  after  the  operation  has  been 


204 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


again  repeated.     This  leaves  the  springer  as  shown  at  Fig. 

122,  but  only  requires  the  ends  hammering  back,  as  seen  at 
Fig.  132,  to  make  the  very  useful  chaplet  shown  at  Fig. 

123.  By  the  method  above  described  a  really  good  and 
useful  chaplet  can  be  obtained  at  very  short  notice. 

The  several  operations  required  to  produce  the  double- 
hoop  iron  stud,  Fig.  125,  are  shown  in  their  order  at  Figs. 


Fig.  126. 


Fig.  127. 


Fig.   128. 


134,  136,  and  138;  and  any  modification  of  this  class  of 
studs,  such  as  the  one  shown  at  Fig.  124,  which  may  be 
made  with  or  without  the  tail  A,  may  be  very  readily  made 
by  the  simple  manner  described,  which  gives  an  elegant 
chaplet  with  an  absolutely  true  face,  thus  obviating  the 
trouble  previou  ly  spoken  of. 

A  most  effective  and  proper  stem  chaplet  is  shown  at 
Fig.  126,  its  chief  characteristic  being  that  the  head  A  is 
forgad  with  the  stem,  and  additional  strength  allowed  at 
the  juncture.  A  good  blacksmith  finds  no  difficulty  in 
forging  chaplets  of  this  class  with  heads  2  inches  across; 


205 


Mvfetfed 

hammer 
wrought 


this,  of  course 
which  are  sup 
separate  at  the 

Plainly  stated, 
is  the  stud  par 
answer  for  an  almost  imlimitecT 


ig.  127 
e  made  to 
emergencies,  as 


will  be  noticed  more  fully  further  on. 

Fig.  128  represents  a  class  of  stud  that,  in  some  special 
instances,  may  be  made  very  useful  and  handy;  the  one 
shown  is  1"  diameter  at  the  stem  A,  and  2|"  diameter  at 
plate  B.  Being  cast  iron,  these  chaplets  are  apt  to  snap 
off  below  the  casting,  leaving  an  unsightly  scar;  to  prevent 
this,  let  the  pattern  from  which  they  are  cast  be  nicked,  as 


C 


Fig.  129. 


Fig.  130. 


seen  at  (7,  a  little  above  the  thickness  of  the  casting  for 
which  they  are  intended;  what  remains  after  the  upper 
portion  is  knocked  off  can  then  be  chipped  true  to  the 
face. 

When  practicable,  it  is  always  best  to  place  these  chap- 
lets  in  their  respective  positions  on  the  pattern,  and  ram 
them  in  the  cope,  to  be  afterwards  withdrawn,  and  the 
front  edge  of  the  hole  enlarged  by  a  taper  plug  made  for 
the  purpose.  By  this  mode  of  procedure  two  very  impor- 
tant ends  are  gained,  viz.,  accuracy  as  to  position,  and  free- 
dom from  anxiety  with  regard  to  the  edge  of  the  hole, 
which,  being  clear  of  the  chaplet,  allows  for  its  easy  motion 
in  either  direction  without  fear  of  damage  to  the  cope. 

To  those  unaccustomed  to  the  use  of  a  variety  of  studs 
and  chaplets,  Fig.  131  will  be  of  interest,  and  serve  the 


206 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


purpose  of  an  object-lesson;  it  is  the  sectional  elevation  of 
a  36"  X  36"  column  having  internal  webs  formed  by  cores, 
and  as  all  these  cores  are  entirely  surrounded  with  iron, 
they  must  of  necessity  be  supported,  steadied,  and  anchored 


American  Machinist 


Fig.  131. 

down  by  a  system  of  studs  or  chaplets,  or,  as  is  seen  in  this 
case,  it  may  be  a  combination  of  both. 

Beginning  with  the  two  lower  cores,  it  will  be  seen  that 
three  different  means  are  shown  for  supporting  them,  the 
right-hand  core  being  upheld  by  J"  stem  chaplets  A  and  B, 
which  are  driven  firmly  into  the  block  of  wood  C,  previ- 
ously set  down  12'  below  the  surface  for  this  purpose. 

The  left-hand  core  is  upheld  by  a  method  much  superior 
to  the  other,  especially  when  the  weight  to  be  borne  is  great; 


STUDS,   CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS. 


207 


in  this  case  one  of  the  same  chaplets  used  at  AB  is  used  at 
D,  but  because  the  foundation  is  iron  a  blunt  end  is  best. 
An  entirely  different  mode  of  procedure  is  necessitated 
when  the  square  supports  E  are  used,  as  in  this  event  all 
the  supports  E  must  be  set  in  position  when  the  bed  is 
formed  for  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  the  pattern  being  set 


3 


Fig.  132. 


Fig.  136. 

exactly  over  them;  all  that  is  then  necessary,  when  ready 
for  the  cores,  is  to  set  on  each  support  a  stud  like  the  one 
seen  at  F,  which  is  supposed  to  be  similar  to  Figs.  116  or  117. 
It  will  be  observed  that  chaplet  Fig.  125  is  permanent  at 
G,  being  nailed  fast  to  the  right-hand  core;  whilst  at  H 
and  /springers,  Fig.  124,  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  bind- 
ing the  whole  together.  The  dry  cores  shown  at  this  place 


208 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


are  for  the  special  purpose  of  permitting  this  to  be  done 
effectually. 

Stud  chaplets  corresponding  to  Figs.  116, 120,  and  119  are 
set  between  the  remaining  cores;  the  blunt  stem  chaplets  / 
and  Ky  Fig.  126,  being  the  permanent  rests  against  which 
the  cores  are  pressed  by  springer  L.  At  the  top  cores  a 
chaplet  similar  to  Fig.  123  is  nailed  fast  at  M,  and  chaplets 
NO  are  pressed  inwards  by  the  application  of  wedges  be- 
hind, as  seen. 

Chaplets  like  Fig.  128  are  used  on  the  left-hand  top  core 


Fig.  134. 


Fig.  135. 


Fig.  137. 


at  PQ-,  this  may  be  done  when  dependence  can  be  placed 
on  the  surface  of  such  chaplet  being  sufficient  to  resist  the 
upward  pressure  without  crushing  the  core.  In  any  case, 
however,  the  plain  studs  R  and  8,  Fig.  127,  are  the  best,  as 
ample  provision  can  be  made  to  meet  every  emergency  by 
;he  placing  of  suitable  blocks  when  the  core  is  made  on 
which  the  stud  can  rest,  as  seen  at  T  and  U. 

One  other  very  important  thing  remains  to  be  done,  and 
the  system  is  complete,  viz.,  to  set  the  binding-beam  V across 
the  cope,  resting  on  the  outer  edge  at  just  such  a  height  as 
will  permit  of  two  wedges,  not  one,  being  used  for  the  pur- 


STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS. 


209 


pose  of  securing  the  studs  as  seen  at  Fand  Z.  Imperfect 
wedging  at  the  last  is  a  frequent  cause  of  disaster,  and  only 
ignorant  or  very  careless  men  are  derelict  in  this  particular. 
Especially  should  care  be  exercised  when  cast-iron  wedges 
are  the  only  ones  obtainable;  in  this -event  a  piece  of 
wrought  iron  should  be  set  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
stud,  with  the  wedges  over;  by  pursuing  this  course  a 
cracked  wedge  will  be  likely  to  create  less  havoc  than 
might  be  the  case  otherwise. 

Fig.  133  illustrates  how  to  use  chaplets  like  Fig.  125, 
when  it  might  be  difficult  to  set  studs  into  the  mould 
proper.  By  simply  nailing  them  fast  to  the  core,  the  latter 


Fig.  139. 


becomes  in  some  measure  self-centring— a  thing  to  be  de- 
sired in  quite  a  number  of  jobs. 

Fig.  135  shows  three  kinds  of  fast  chaplets  for  use  in  dry- 
sand  work  when  the  position  of  the  mould  must  be  changed 
for  casting.  The  one  at  A  is  to  be  set  in  to  exact  depth 
when  the  mould  is  green,  while  those  at  B  and  C"are  equally 
applicable  to  both  loam  and  dry  sand,  as  they  can  be  firmly 
attached  to  any  part  of  the  mould,  when  dry,  without  fear 
of  displacement;  the  one  at  C  is  eminently  useful  when  a 
stud  is  required  to  be  fastened  on  a  covering-plate  or  cope. 

Fig.  137  shows  how  cores  may  be  firmly  held  in  dry-sand 
moulds,  that  must  be  turned  on  end,  with  chaplets  of  the 
type  shown  at  Fig.  126  exclusively,  all  of  which  can  be  in- 
serted when  the  mould  is  green.  For  some  kinds  of  light 


210 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


work  for  which  there  is  constant  demand  this  is  an  admir- 
able method,  and  saves  both  time  and  labor. 

How  to  close  moulds  almost  as  readily  in  green  sand  by 
using  similar  chaplets  is  shown  at  Fig.  139,  anchorage  for 


Fig.  140. 


Fig.   141. 


which  is  obtained  by  casting  pockets  in  the  flask  opposite 
to  where  the  chaplet  is  required  to  be  set,  into  which  are 
driven  wood  plugs.  All  that  is  needed  then  is  to  sharpen 
the  chaplets  to  a  length  suitable  for  taking  a  firm  grip  in 
the  wood,  and  the  end  is  accomplished.  A  good  illustra- 


STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AfrD  ANCHORS.  211 

tion  of  the  usefulness  of  this  scheme  is  given  at  Fig.  140, 
which  is  a  partial  representation  of  the  section  of  a  cylin- 
der-head cope  immediately  over  one  of  the  suspended  cores. 
Usually  these  cores,  six  or  eight  in  number,  are  held  in 
place  by  three  bearings  or  prints  to  each  core,  which  serve 
the  purpose  of  anchoring  to  the  cope  as  well  as  to  carry  off 
the  gas,  and  all  of  these  must  be  tapped  and  plugged  after 
the  core  has  been  taken  out. 

Instead  of  the  three  prints  mentioned  above,  let  pockets 
be  provided  in  the  flask-bars  at  A,  and  pursue  the  course 
previously  explained;  there  will  then  be  three  firmly  fixed 
chaplets  B  in  the  cope,  on  which  to  rest  the  core,  one  hole 
in  the  centre  being  sufficient  through  which  to  carry  the 


Fig.  142.  Fig.  143.  Fig.  144. 

air  and  effect  an  anchorage.  A  double-threaded  gas-pipe 
(7,  which  enters  the  core-iron  by  means  of  a  nut  cast  there- 
in at  D,  serves  the  double  purpose  of  vent-pipe  and  anchor, 
as  will  be  seen  by  a  careful  inspection  of  the  figure.  The 
question  of  economy  should  at  once  decide  in  favor  of  this 
proposed  scheme,  for  only  eight  holes  require  plugging,  in- 
stead of  twenty-four,  as  in  the  former  instance.  The  pos- 
sibilities for  other  jobs  by  this  method  are  truly  marvellous, 
with  the  margin  of  safety  increased  tenfold. 

To  all  who  may  be  still  digging  holes  and  driving  chaplet- 
blocks  A  after  the  manner  seen  on  the  right  hand  of  Fig. 
141, 1  would  ask  them  to  look  on  the  other  side  of  the  figure, 
where  a  round  cast-block  3£"  diameter  across  the  edge  at 
B,  extending  5"  down  to  a  point  at  C,  is  driven  down,  on 
which  stud  D  is  resting,  and  say  whether  the  end  cannot 


212 


THE  IRONFOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


be  much  better  served  by  the  method  suggested.   For  cores 
up  to  12"  this  little  block  is  a  wonder,  very  few  believing 


Anusrita/i  Machinist 


Fig.  145. 


Fig.  146. 

the  amount  of  weight  they  will  safely  bear  until  they  have 
tried  them. 

Fig.  142  shows  the  top  half  of  a  12-inch  pipe,  on  which  a 
ohaplet  of  the  common  riveted  type  has  been  used;  the 


STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS. 


213 


thin  plate  A  has  yielded  to  the  combined  influence  of  heat 
and  pressure,  with  the  result  shown.  Fig.  143  shows  a  de- 
cided improvement  in  the  form  of  chaplet,  but  the  bulki- 
ness  of  the  button  A  makes  it  absolutely  necessary  that 
thickness  be  added  at  B,  which  gives  a  very  unsightly  ap- 
pearance to  the  casting.  Both  of  these  evils  can  be  totally 
remedied  by  adopting  the  loose  stud  A,  resting  on  a  stud- 
plate  rammed  in  the  core,  as  seen  at  Fig.  144. 

Fig.  145  represents  a  half  column  in  green  sand  4  feet 
diameter,  with  dry-sand  core  resting  on  curved  stud  chap- 
lets  of  the  type  shown  at  Fig.  118.  Foundation-plates  A9 


Fig.   147. 

3  ft.  6  in.  X  1  ft.,  with  supports  B  (cast  on),  extending  up 
to  and  assuming  the  curve  of  the  casting,  are  set  down 
solid  with  the  curved  surface  of  the  supports  flush  with  the 
pattern  when  the  bed  is  formed,  thus  giving  solid  bearing 
for  the  studs  C.  Should  there  be  danger  of  the  core  yield- 
ing, provision  must  be  made  by  inserting  suitable  bearings, 
which  will  meet  the  studs  C. 

Fig.  146  shows  how  to  provide  for  using  the  same  kind  of 
studs  in  a  hollow  cone  4  ft.  diameter,  3  ft.  6  in.  deep,  in 
green  sand,  with  dry  core  in  sections. 

Cores  of  whatever  magnitude  may  be  made  to  rest  with 
the  greatest  degree  of  safety  on  stud  chaplets  when  suitable 
provision  is  made,  as  seen  at  Fig.  147.  The  figure  is  a  sec- 


214 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


tional  view  of  the  lower  edge  of  a  loam  mould  of  large  di- 
mensions, the  core  of  which  must  rest  positively  on  stud 
chaplets;  this,  as  shown,  is  made  possible  by  the  aid  of 
square  supports  A,  set  down  on  the  foundation-plate  D, 
and  built  in  along  with  the  lower  courses,  which  forms  the 
bottom  of  the  mould  at  E.  The  studs  B,  cast  on  the  core 
covering-plate  F,  directly  opposite  to  the  supports  A,  com- 
plete the  arrangement,  and  permit  of  any  amount  of  added 
weight  above  being  supported  with  safety  by  stud  chap- 
lets  C. 

Figs.  148  and  149  will  serve  to  explain  some  modes  for 


Fig.  148. 

securing  chaplets  in  both  sand  and  loam  work.  Fig.  148  is 
a  partial  view  of  the  top  covering-plate  of  a  loam-mould, 
with  the  upper  edge  of  core  revealed,  on  which  are  resting 
stud  chaplets  A  and  B,  but  there  are  times  when  under 
heavy  pressures  the  loam  must  yield;  it  is  then  important 
that  other  means  of  resistance  be  provided.  The  stud  C 
can  then  be  resorted  to,  there  being  no  difficulty  in  making 
it  fast  when  clamp  D  is  cast  directly  over  the  hole  made  to 
receive  it. 

If  it  be  required  that  the  studs  shall  pass  through  the 
covering-plate  after  the  mould  is  closed,  then  cast  in  the 
clamps  clear  of  the  holes,  as  seen  at  E  and  F,  and  pack  the 


STUDS,  CHAPLETS,  AND  ANCHORS. 


215 


studs  by  means  of  the  bar  G.  This  expedient  is  far  su- 
perior to  any  of  the  modes  of  securing  studs  by  means  of 
outside  rigging. 

Fig.  149  shows  a  portion  of  cope  flask  A,  on  the  front  end 
of  which,  at  B,  is  shown  the  sort  of  cast  girder  needed  for 
very  heavy  work;  this,  as  seen,  must  be  made  fast  to  the 
flask  by  clamps  or  bolts  at  G  before  the  chaplets  are  wedged. 
The  style  of  bar  shown  at  C  is  intended  for  regular  use  on 
ordinary  work;  it  must  be  understood  that  the  end  at  His 


Fig.  149. 

similar  to  that  at  /,  but  is  pulled  in  under  the  flange  to 
allow  of  the  latter  end  passing  clear  of  the  flange  at  J, 
when  it  can  be  pushed  back  until  one  half  of  the  clamp 
end  at  K  is  equally  divided  under  the  flanges  at  both  sides. 
Supposing  the  box  flange  to  be  2%  inches  wide,  this  will 
give  one  inch,  good,  at  both  ends,  and  is  amply  sufficient 
for  wedging  purposes;  this  combination  of  bar  and  clamps 
is  a  very  useful  contrivance  for  all  ordinary  work,  and  saves 
considerable  trouble. 

For  all  work  that  is  repeated  day  after  day,  it  pays  well 
to  rig  a  flask  after  the  manner  shown  at  D  Ef  or  F,  as  in 


216  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  former  instance;  the  bar  L  passed  through  the  holes  D 
and  E  serves  for  an  almost  instant  adjustment  of  the  chap- 
let;  the  same  may  be  observed  with  regard  to  the  single 
bar  expedient  at  F,  where  the  chaplet  can  be  inserted  be- 
fore the  cope  is  turned  up  for  closing,  after  which  a  couple 
of  wedges  under  M  decide  the  matter  even  quicker  than  is 
possible  by  the  former  arrangement. 


HIGH-CLASS  MOULDING. 

EXPLAINED    BY   A   DESCRIPTION    OF    DIFFERENT   WAYS   OF 
MOULDING   A   FOUR-WAY   VENTILATING-SHAFT. 

THE  following  excellent  example  may  with  propriety  be 
termed  advanced  practice  in  the  art  of  moulding.  Un- 
varied success  in  producing  castings  of  this  type  is  only 
possible  when  the  most  skilful  workmen  are  employed  to 
produce  it. 

This  particular  canting  has  been  selected  for  illustration 
on  this  occasion,  because  in  its  numerous  and  varied  phases 
under  altered  circumstances,  superinduced  by  the  lack  of 
facilities  in  some  foundries  for  making  such  work  readily, 
it  presents  a  wide  range  of  difficulties,  that  can  be  success- 
fully met  only  when  the  best  efforts  of  the  most  adroit 
artisan  are  put  forth. 

At  Fig.  150  is  shown  the  plan  and  elevation  of  a  four- 
chambered  ventilating-shaft  4  feet  diameter,  11  feet  long, 
and  1£  inches  thick  all  through.  The  casting  as  seen  is 
simply  a  plain  cylinder,  with  internal  webs  that  intersect 
each  other  at  right  angles  at  the  centre,  extending  through- 
out its  entire  length,  and  forming  four  separate  compart- 
ments, or  chambers. 

Founders  having  no  facilities  for  moulding  such  a  casting 


HIGH-CLASS  MOULDING.  217 

vertically  in  loam,  but  who  are  in  every  sense  well  equipped 
for  its  production  in  halves  in  green  sand,  would  naturally 
hesitate  about  sub-letting  the  job  at  a  considerably  ad- 
vanced figure,  if  bolting  the  halves  together  violated  no 
part  of  their  contract. 

Fig.  151  is  plan  and  elevation  of  the  half  casting  for  this 
purpose,  showing  the  web  at  A  to  be  slightly  reduced  in 
thickness,  and  still  further  lightened  by  the  eight  openings, 
marked  from  B  to  /,  respectively,  for  one  half;  six  similar 
openings  in  the  other  half  to  be  set  exactly  between,  as 
indicated  by  the  broken  lines,  giving  space  sufficient  for  a 
bed  of  cement  that  is  to  be  applied  for  the  prevention 
of  leakage  from  one  chamber  to  another. 

The  subject  now  resolves  itself  into  the  moulding  of  two 
castings,  one  of  which,  the  half,  is  to  be  cast  horizontally 
in  green  sand  with  dry-sand  cores,  and  the  whole  one  ver- 
tically in  loam,  with  cores  after  various  methods,  to  be 
illustrated  further  on.  As  previously  stated,  these  castings 
are  good  examples  of  their  kind,  calling  forth  and  develop- 
ing ideas  of  moulding,  which,  if  intelligently  understood, 
may  be  made  of  universal  application. 

We  will  first  consider  the  half  one  in  green  sand  (Fig. 
151),  and  before  we  sit  in  judgment  on  what  appears  so 
plain  a  job,  let  us  examine  into  some  of  the  chief  features 
connected  with  it. 

Firstly.  The  core  weighs  in  the  neighborhood  of  seven 
tons,  a  large  proportion  of  which  weight  must  be  borne  on 
studs  necessarily.  This  of  course  must  be  provided  for  by 
preparing  good  foundations  for  the  studs  and  a  more  than 
ordinarily  solid  core,  the  latter  to  be  divided  in  such  manner 
as  will  be  most  convenient  for  drying,  handling,  setting, 
and  anchoring. 

Secondly.  The  pressure  under  this  core  is  over  twenty 
tons,  and  this  pressure  must  be  resisted  by  a  judicious  dis- 
tribution of  chaplets  and  studs,  which  must  rest  on  suitablv 


218 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


provided  iron  bearings  in  the  cores,  as  the  latter  must  be 
held  in  position  by  a  greater  weight  above,  or,  what  is  bet- 


\ 

I 

JF 

1 
i 

G 

Fig.  ISO. 


Fig.  151. 


ter,  by  a  system  of  binders  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  the 
upward  pressure.  We  must  not  omit  to  remember  here 
that  pressure  is  exerted  in  every  direction  as  long  as  the 


HIGH-CLASS  MOULDING.  219 

metal  is  in  a  molten  condition;  consequently  the  green-sand 
mould  needs  to  be  well  made  if  it  is  expected  to  retain  its 
original  shape  under  such  a  test. 

Thirdly.  As  such  a  casting  would  weigh  about  three  tons, 
it  would  be  judicious  to  divide  the  iron,  pouring  one  half 
at  each  end  by  a  system  of  runners  cut  under  the  core,  as 
described  in  chapter  on  "Pouring,"  etc.,  page  192.  .  This 
would  strengthen  the  'ends  of  the  casting  by  insuring  a 
supply  of  hot  iron  at  those  parts  to  the  last,  and  would 
sensibly  lessen  the  damage  from  abrasion,  which  is  un- 
pleasantly noticeable  when  large  quantities  of  iron  enter 
the  mould  at  one  place. 

Starting  with  the  above  knowledge  of  the  chief  require- 
ments, we  are  more  than  half-equipped  for  the  undertaking 
before  a  blow  is  struck.  How  much  of  this  power  of  intro- 
spection is  lacking  amongst  us  as  a  class  is  only  too  well 
known,  and  to  the  lack  of  this  ability  to  judge  of  the  needs 
and  requirements  in  the  case  most  of  the  disasters  that  are 
constantly  occurring  may  be  traced  :  plainly  demonstrating 
that  we  as  moulders  are  not  equal  to  the  demands  made 
on  our  ingenuity  and  judgment,  because  of  the  almost  uni- 
versal ignorance  which  prevails  among  us  as  a  class. 

The  magnitude  of  this  job  demands  a  reliable  substitute 
for  the  prevailing  method  of  '  rolling  over/  and  this  may 
be  found  in  the  bed-sweep,  or  former,  shown  at  Fig.  152, 
consisting  of  two  boards  A  and  B,  equal  to  the  circle  of  the 
shaft-pattern,  and  held  together  by  the  straight  edges  C 
and  Z),  the  length  of  which  corresponds  to  the  length  of 
the  pattern.  There  must  be  width  sufficient  to  make  the 
ramming  of  the  remainder  an  easy  matter  after  the  pattern 
has  been  set  upon  the  formed  bed. 

Let  the  reader  turn  to  Fig.  153,  which  is  a  sectional  view 
of  the  whole  mould  when  everything  has  been  achieved  up 
to  the  closing  of  the  cope  ;  but  before  we  attempt  any 
description  of  the  methods  adopted  for  the  accomplishment 


220 


THE  IEON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


of  what  is  there  seen,  it  will  be  best  to  understand  the  sys- 
tem of  coring  as  here  applied.  Literally  speaking,  this  job 
can  be  made  wiUi  two  cores  formed  on  strong  arbors  full 


Fig.  152. 


§^>:-^^^ 


:,-  ••••.  *^*r  :--•.:  '•  1  .'•  '••„•  f.  •> 
,-: '..•:•:•: •:. :: -  -. •-7/r- -'-  -53 


k*  •  v.  : "  -.  :> 

i^;';.-^;-*. -N-r.-. 

Fig.   153. 

length  of  the  casting;  but  preference  may  with  considerable 
reason  be  made  of  the  means  herein  represented,  inasmuch 
as  it  accomplishes  the  object  with  equal  facility  by  a 
number  of  pieces  that  are  soon  dried,  and  can  be  readily 
handled,  whilst  the  arrangement  of  the  core-iron  for  the 


HIGH- CLASS  MOULDING. 


221 


bottom  sections  of  core,  makes,  what  in  either  case  would 
be  a  tedious  undertaking,  a  very  simple  piece  of  work. 

To  set  these  cores  on  either  side  of  the  web  separately 
would  be  a  critical  operation,  on  account  of  the  tendency 
to  slide  off  the  studs  towards  the  centre.  This  difficulty  is 
effectually  met  in  this  case  by  uniting  the  two  bottom  sec- 
tions of  cores  at  the  bearing  C,  Fig.  154,  also  at  A  and  />',  at 
which  points  the  core-iron  is  allowed  to  pass  through  the 


Fig.  154. 

casting,  thus  making  one  firm  core  out  of  both.    The  irons 
are  easily  snapped  off  when  the  casting  is  cleaned. 

Fig  154,  /),  shows  the  end  view  of  frame  for  making  this 
section  of  core.  The  frame  is  made  one  foot  longer  than 
the  half  of  the  shaft,  and  simply  rests  over  the  core-iron,  as 
shown  by  broken  lines  at  D.  This  frame  and  a  smooth 
plate  is  all  the  core-box  required  for  this  part  of  the  job,  as 
the  core  can  be  easily  turned  over  when  dry,  and  lifted  into 
the  mould  with  ropes  round  the  cross-bars  at  B,  D,  and  E. 


222  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

By  this  means  staples  for  lifting  are  unnecessary,  and  the 
surface  is  consequently  left  clear  for  the  upper  sections  of 
core  to  rest  on. 

The  upper  cores  A  and  B,  Fig.  153,  four  in  number,  may 
be  made  on  a  smooth  plate  with  the  upper  face  down,  to  be 
reversed  again  when  dry,  in  which  event  sides  and  ends 
with  a  temporary  preparation  for  the  circle  on  one  side  will 
be  all  the  core-box  needed  at  this  part.  Eemembering  the 
amount  of  pressure  that  this  core  is  called  upon  to  resist, 
there  must  be  no  mistake  about  having  the  stud-plates  0 
and  D,  Fig.  153,  to  rest  firmly,  iron  and  iron,  on  whatever 
system  of  core-irons  may  be  used  for  the  purpose.  On  the 
other  hand,  remembering  the  amount  of  weight  that  the 
bottom  sections  must  sustain,  equal  attention  must  be  paid 
to  the  selection  of  material  that  will  hold  the  weight  with- 
out fracture  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the  stud.  But 
should  the  strength  of  the  material  used  be  found  in- 
adequate to  the  work,  then  make  such  an  arrangement  as 
will  insure  the  stud  to  press  directly  against  the  core-iron, 
in  which  case,  assurance  is  made  doubly  sure. 

Supposing  our  cores  to  be  all  ready,  we  will  at  once 
proceed  to  make  the  mould,  giving  reasons  for  the  several 
operations  as  we  proceed.  The  mould,  as  shown  at  Fig.  153, 
is  contained  in  the  floor;  but  it  is  far  preferable  to  have  a 
lower  box  constructed  of  stout  sides,  with  external  flanges 
to  correspond  with  those  at  E  and  F,  the  depth  of  which 
may  be  about  2  feet,  standing  out  of  the  floor  about  half  its 
depth.  These  sides  must  be  connected  with  extra-strong 
cross-bars  extending  down  under  the  job,  making  it  only 
necessary  to  clamp  or  bolt  the  two  flanges  at  E  and  F  to- 
gether in  order  to  secure  anything  that  may  be  cast  therein. 
The  upper  flange  can  be  utilized  for  holding  down  cores,  as 
in  this  case,  after  the  manner  shown  in  chapter  on  "Studs, 
Chaplets,"  etc.,  page  215. 

After  a  good  cinder-bed  has  been  laid  down  at  G,  12 


HIGH- CLASS  MOULDING.  223 

inches  below  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  ram  solid  to  within 
6  inches,  and  set  down  the  bed-former,  Fig.  152,  at  such 
depth  as  will  bring  the  pattern,  when  set  thereon,  even  with 
the  joint  of  the  flask  at  E,  Fig.  153.  The  former  will  serve 
as  a  guide  for  placing  the  anchor-plates  H  in  such  numbers 
and  position  as  will  best  serve  the  purpose  of  supporting 
the  cores.  A  knowledge  of  the  weight  these  must  carry 
will  suggest  the  propriety  of  having  them  on  solid  ground; 
otherwise  they  will  be  pressed  downward,  and  a  consequent 
diminution  of  the  thickness  at  the  bottom  of  the  casting 
ensue. 

The  anchor-plates  satisfactorily  set,  proceed  to  ram  old 
sand  within  the  frame  to  within  one  inch  of  the  surface, 
when  the  whole  must  be  vented  down  to  the  cinders,  after 
which  the  facing  sand  can  be  applied  by  treading  an  extra 
thickness  all  over  as  evenly  as  possible;  the  surplus  can 
then  be  struck  off  to  the  frame.  After  the  frame  has  been 
lifted  out,  continue  the  ramming  to  the  edge  of  the  formed 
bed,  set  on  the  pattern,  and  proceed  to  ram  along  the  re- 
maining portion  of  the  pattern  in  the  usual  way. 

This  mode  of  bed-forming  will  be  found  infinitely  supe- 
rior to  any  other  for  'bedding  in'  for  not  only  large  circular, 
but  all  classes  of  work  with  surfaces  more  or  less  irregular. 

As  we  close  this  mould  we  realize  very  sensibly  the  advan- 
tages gained  by  the  methods  adopted  for  moulding  it.  We 
know  that  the  foundations  .//"are  solid;  that  the  studs  //, 
in  consequence  of  the  wedge  attachment  at  the  back,  are 
immovable  thereon;  that  the  bottom  section  of  cores,  safely 
held  together  by  the  cross-bars,  cannot  be  changed  from 
their  position,  and  constitute  a  safe  bed  whereon  to  set  the 
upper  cores.  A  and  /?,  without  fear  of  failure.  All  this,  we 
say,  conspires  to  make  the  closing  of  this  mould  a  marvel 
of  simplicity,  dispatch,  and  safety. 

As  a  loam  job,  to  be  cast  whole  and  in  vertical  position, 
we  encounter  a  new  order  of  things  altogether;  the  re- 


224:  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

qulrementa  are  so  much  different  from  the  case  we  have 
buen  discussing  as  to  make  the  business  of  moulding  this 
shuf  t  in  loam  appear  another  trade. 

As  we  propose  to  mould  this  in  its  entire  length,  a  suffi- 
cient height  of  oven  and  crane,  as  well  as  depth  of  pit,  are 
prime  requisites.  It  might  be  that  an  indifference  as  to 
inside  finish  could  be  taken  advantage  of,  and  the  labor  on 
the  core  considerably  reduced  thereby.  A  method  of 
moulding  under  such  circumstances  will  be  shown,  as  well 
as  a  more  elaborate  one,  in  case  it  should  be  necessary  to 
separate  the  parts  in  order  to  a  perfect  finish,  inside  as 
well  as  outside. 

Whilst  it  might  not,  in  this  particular  instance,  be  de- 
sirable to  adopt  a  system  of  dry-sand  cores,  yet  changes  of 
design  might  make  such  a  course  indispensable  ;  therefore  a 
method  calculated  to  meet  the  altered  circumstances  will  be 
discussed  and  suitably  illustrated  as  we  pursue  the  subject. 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  go  through  every  detail  con- 
nected with  the  moulding  of  such  a  casting;  therefore,  in 
dealing  with  this  subject,  we  shall  pass  over  all  the  ordinary 
processes  of  loam-moulding  (fully  discussed  and  illustrated 
in  "The  Iron-Founder"  page  147),  and  confine  ourselves 
to  those  parts  only  that  possess  more  than  ordinary  interest 
to  the  workman. 

To  those  who  may  be  unacquainted  with  this  particular 
class  of  work  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  a  quadrant  of  4 
feet  diameter  does  not  make  a  very  stable  structure,  in 
loam,  when  built  to  the  height  of  1:3  feet,  and  some  method 
must  be  devised  whereby  the  divided  core  may  not  only  be 
handled,  but  conveyed  in  and  out  of  the  oven,  and  finally 
to  the  pit  for  ousting. 

We  will  first  consider  how  best  to  make  such  a  mould  if 
it  were  allowed  to  deliver  the  casting  with  no  more  finish 
to  the  inside  webs  than  could  be  given  them  by  reaching 
from  the  outside.  Under  such  circumstances  the  cores 


HIGH-CLASS  MOULDING.  225 

might  be  built  stationary  on  the  foundation -pi  ate,  but,  as 
before  said,  something  must  be  done  to  save  the  fabric 


Fig.  155. 

from  settling  out  of  shape  during  the  process  of  transit 
from  the  centre  to  the  oven  and  back. 

Fig.  155  is  a  representation  of  such  a  core  under  course 
of  construction  after  the  cope  has  been  struck  and  lifted 
away.  The  outside  bearing  is  seen  at  A,  and  cores  B  are 


226  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

built  a  short  distance  up,  where  a  break  is  made  for  the 
purpose  of  placing  the  first  of  four  similar  plates,  or  frames, 
that  are  to  be  built  into  the  cores  at  intervals  of  2'  10£", 
which  distances  would  bring  the  last  one  G"  from  the  top. 
It  is  at  once  observed  that  the  four  quadrants  are  joined 
together,  and  form,  as  it  were,  a  whole  cast  frame  by  allow- 
ing the  connection  to  pass  through  the  web  at  (7;  it  will 
also  be  noticed  that  V's  are  formed  round  the  connecting 
piece  to  insure  a  clean  break,  uniform  with  the  casting,  when 
the  irons  are  broken  out. 

Patterns  for  the  webs  are,  in  this  case,  made  2'  10£" 
long;  eight  pieces  only  are  needed,  as  the  under  ones  can. 
be  drawn  when  the  building  lias  reached  the  top  edge  of 
the  upper  one.  It  will  also  be  seen  at  (7,  D,  and  E  that 
provision  for  the  connecting  web  is  made  by  cutting  out 
a  portion  of  the  pattern,  the  pieces  F  and  G  being  neces- 
sarily made  loose  and  pinned,  this  permits  them  to  be  taken 
out  after  the  web  pattern  has  been  withdrawn. 

In  this  case  the  core-sweep  H  need  be  but  a  few  inches 
longer  than  will  finish  off  each  length  of  core  as  they  are 
built.  In  building  these  cores  have  all  plates  \\"  clear  of 
the  casting,  and  be  sure  that  the  brickwork  is  very  open, 
well  cindered,  and  all  loam  as  porous  as  possible.  The 
holes  JK  indicate  that  a  short  length  of  4"  pipe  is  to  be 
used  for  building  up  to,  drawing  it  up  as  the  work  pro- 
gresses; the  cindered  spaces  leading  up  to  that  point 
guarantee  a  sure  connection  at  each  course  as  they  are  laid. 

It  is  important  that  that  portion  of  the  core-plates  which 
passes  through  the  casting  should  be  as  free  as  possible 
from  sand  and  blackening,  otherwise  they  might  be  found 
loose  when  the  irons  were  broken  out  of  the  cores. 

In  order  to  reach  the  inside  for  a  superior  finish  we 
must  lift  out  two  opposite  cores.  How  this  may  be  done 
will  be  shown  by  the  aid  of  Figs.  156  and  157,  where  the 
whole  process  is  delineated  in  detail,  cores  A  and  B,  Fig. 


HIGH-CLASS  MOULDING. 


227 


156.  being  the  ones  to  be  lifted  out.    Referring  to  Fig.  157, 
we  see  the  foundation-plate  at  A  ;  bearing  for  the  cope  at 


Fig.  156. 


B;  cope-ring  at  (7;  and  the  inside  lifting-plates,  with  a  por- 
tion of  the  cores  built,  are  seen  in  position.     It  is  always 


228 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


preferable  to  have  the  inside  plates  made  as  seen,  so  that 
their  own  impression  forms  the  joint,  and  leaves  them  alto- 
gether free  from  loam. 

The  manner  of  setting  these  inside  plates  is  as  follows  : 
First,  strike  a  bed  for  the  bottom,  lay  out  the  quadrants, 
and,  after  cleaning  and  oiling  the  plates,  set  them  in  their 
exact  position  opposite  each  other,  bed  them  down  solid, 
and  then  build  on  a  course  and  strike  off  a  little  above  the 
plates  all  over;  this  gives  the  bed  for  the  ribs  as  well  as 


Fig.  157. 

the  bearing  for  the  cope-ring  at  B.  The  bed,  as  formed 
by  the  plate,  is  shown  at  C,  Fig.  156,  whilst  the  plate  in 
position  woulJ  appear  as  seen  at  D  in  the  same  figure. 

In  this  case  it  is  best  to  have  the  web  patterns  made 
full  length,  set  into  position,  and  used  as  bearings  on  which 
to  run  a  strickle  vertically,  thus  obviating  the  use  of  the 
sweep-board  altogether — a  thing  most  devoutly  to  be  wished 
for  when  the  cores  are  very  long,  as  in  this  instance. 

The  webs  being  all  set  in  position,  place  the  bolts  as 
seen  at  D,  with  a  wedge  underneath  to  keep  them  np  snug, 
and  if  a  template  is  prepared  answering  to  the  position  of 
the  bolt-holes  in  plate  at  E,  it  may  be  lowered  around  the 
tops  of  the  bolts  and  screwed  fast  to  the  webs,  thus  serving 
tiie  double  purpose  of  keeping  the  webs  in  place  and  hold- 


HIGH- CLASS  MOULDING.  229 

ing  the  bolts  in  position  whilst  the  cores  are  being  built. 
For  reasons  obvious,  a  four-inch  perforated  pipe  is  prepared 
for  each  of  these  cores,  to  be  built  in  the  centre  and  stand 
out  through  the  covering  plate,  as  shown  at  F  and  G,  Fig. 
157,  the  object  of  this  being  that  a  plate,  or  cross,  Fig.  159, 
with  holes  cast  corresponding  to  the  position  of  the  pipes, 
may  be  firmly  wedged  around  the  pipes  during  the  time 
that  the  cores  are  being  moved  about  on  the  foundation- 
plate.  Holes  cast  in  the  covering- plate  through  which  the 
pipes  pass,  as  seen  at  Fig.  157,  can  be  utilized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stiffening  the  whole  structure  after  the  mould  is 
closed. 

These  cores  are  to  be  further  strengthened  by  building  in 
plates,  as  shown  at  F,  Fig.  116,  at  about  three  places  before 
6"  from  the  top  is  reached,  when  the  plate  shown  at  E  is  to 
be  set  on  as  seen,  and  the  nuts  screwed  down.  The  hand- 
ling of  these  cores  is  done  by  the  three  staples  seen,  which, 
when  a  three-legged  buckle  chain  is  used,  can  be  easily 
regulated  to  a  plumb-line. 

The  pipes,  in  conjunction  with  the  build  ing-rings,  stiffen 
the  core  laterally,  as  well  as  serve  the  purpose  of  a  direct 
medium  through  which  the  gas  can  pass  away  freely  at  the 
top.  The  same  precautions  are  to  be  taken  in  this  case,  as 
in  the  last,  to  have  an  open-built  core  with  cinders  form- 
ing a  channel  towards  the  holes  in  the  pi  peat  every  course. 

As  before  explained,  the  cores  C  and  F  are  to  be  sta- 
tionary, consequently  there  will  be  nothing  except  the  per- 
forated pipe,  and  about  six  of  the  building-plates  used  in 
their  construction.  The  bolt  G  is  shown  simply  to  give 
some  idea  of  how  core  A  would  appear  when  that  height 
had  been  reached. 

Of  course  it  becomes  an  easy  matter  to  finish  the  inside 
of  this  mould  when  these  opposite  cores  are  taken  away,  as 
illustrated  above. 

The  simplest   method  of  making  full-length  dry-sand 


230 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


cores  for  this  casting  is  shown  at  Fig.  158.  To  be  sure  in 
this  case  8  cores,  each  6  feet  long,  could  be  used  effectually 
if  it  were  necessary  to  adopt  that  mode  of  procedure  ;  but 
we  set  out  to  discover  a  means  of  making  them  in  one 
length,  supposing  that  a  contingency  might  on  some  occa- 
sion present  itself  which  would  admit  of  no  other  solution 
to  the  difficulty. 

The  chief  prerequisites  in  this  case  are  :  first,  an  arbor 


5 

X 

•"*"" 

z 

3 

e 

.B 

0 

«1 

s 

T 

,m«n<;an.J/ac;iijiM 

1 

Fig.  158. 

or  core-iron  as  light  as  possible,  and  yet  strong  enough 
laterally  to  stand  turning  up  on  end  without  springing; 
second,  that  the  end  bearing  must  be  iron,  and  indepen- 
dent of  the  sand  core;  and  third,  that  means  be  taken 
to  insure  a  safe  elevation  of  the  core,  and  having  the  same? 
to  hang  plumb  for  closing  in  the  mould. 

The  end  section  and  side  elevation  of  a  suitable  arbor 
for  such  a  core  is  shown  at  A  and  B,  Fig.  158,  the  dimen- 
sions being  2"  thick  and  12"  deep,  on  which  wings  C  are 
to  be  firmly  wedged,  as  seen  at  A.  The  bottom  wing  must 
be  made  extra  strong,  and  must  have  a  stud  3"  diameter 


HIGH- CLASS  MOULDING.  231 

cast  at  each  corner,  and  when  the  core-iron  is  placed  in  the 
core-box  these  studs  must  rest  against  the  bottom  of  the 
core-box,  as  seen  at  G,  H,  J,  and  K.  These  studs  must  be 
placed  to  correspond  with  bearings  set  upon  the  founda- 
tion-plate, and  even  with  the  seatings  formed  to  receive 
the  core  ;  by  this  means  the  weight  of  the  core  is  made  to 
rest  independent  of  the  sand  seating. 

As  seen,  this  bottom  wing  is  securely  held  both  ways  by 
wedged  pins  inserted  at  holes  L  and  M,  provided  for  the 
purpose.  Other  holes,  not  seen,  are  to  be  used  at  intervals 
in  a  similar  manner,  with  the  view  of  distributing  the 


Fig.  159. 

weight  of  the  core  along  the  bar,  and  not  depending  en- 
tirely on  the  wedges  which  bind  the  wings  to  the  bar. 

Additional  stiffness  may  be  given  to  this  core  at  the  bot- 
tom by  casting  intermediate  studs  1'  diameter  on  the  wings 
at  N,  0,  P,  R,  S,  and  T,  as  far  back  as  is  thought  neces- 
sary. This  core  can  be  made  readily  in  a  box  after  the 
manner  shown  at  UU,  the  rolling  over  being  effected  by 
securing  a  stout  wood  frame  at  FT,  filling  in  with  old  sand 
and  bricks,  and  bolting  or  clamping  the  core-plate  there- 
on, taking  cure  to  wedge  between  the  plate  and  core-iron 
at  Hrand  X before  rolling  over,  the  latter  precaution  being 
necessary  when  the  arbor  is  heavy,  as  in  this  case. 

Six  inches  of  sand,  rammed  solid  to  the  face,  is  all  that 
would  be  required  for  a  core  of  this  description;  the  re- 
maining portion,  or  heart  of  the  core,  can  be  cinders. 


232 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Once  dry,  the  rest  is  simple,  as  the  core  can  be  safely 
transorted  by  means  of  the  holes  Fand  Z,  the  latter  hole 
being  made  oblong  for  the  purpose  of  regulating  the  swing 
when  closing  into  the  mould.  The  mode  of  swinging  is 
shown  at  Fig.  160  and  consists  of  a  wood  block  A  about  18" 


Fig.  160. 

square,  rammed  firmly  in  the  floor  for  about  2|  feet,  the  top 
end  of  which  must  have  a  groove  cut  thereon  nearly  us 
deep  as  that  portion  of  the  arbor  that  extends  past  the 
end  of  the  core,  and  about  the  width  of  the  same. 

The  elevation  of  this  core  is  easily  accomplished  by 
means  of  the  shackle  B,  which  is  made  to  fit  the  arbor, 
and  is  provided  with  a  threaded  pin  that  precludes  all  pos- 
sibility of  the  shackle  spreading. 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  QUEEN-SAND  WORK   233 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  HEAVY  GREEN- 
SAND   WORK. 

INCLUDING  DRAWBACKS,  CRITICAL  GREEN-SAND  CORES, 
ETC.  ;  OR,  SOME  THINGS  BEYOND  THE  CAPACITY  OF 
THE  MOULDING-MACHINE. 

A  CASUAL  observer  of  the  foundry  business  to-day,  more 
particularly  such  foundries  as  make  a  specialty  of  match- 
work,  with  and  without  the  moulding-machine,  would  be 
apt  to  make  a  very  serious  mistake,  and  imagine  that  brains 
were  a  superfluous  commodity,  that  need  not  be  taken  into 
account  when  the  question  of  hiring  moulders  was  upper- 
most. It  would  appear  at  the  places  above  noted  that 
the  moulder  has  been  reduced  to  a  mere  automaton  or  pat- 
ent i  Kodak,'  with  this  immense  disadvantage,  that  be- 
fore the  button  is  touched  for  you  to  'do  the  rest'  the 
operator  must  move  considerable  sand  and  perform  an 
amount  of  athletics  truly  astonishing,  clearly  demonstrat- 
ing the  fact  that  no  matter  at  whatever  degree  brains 
might  be  rated  in  this  undertaking,  muscle  is  most  assur- 
edly at  a  discount. 

A  little  thought  will  serve  to  dispel  some  of  the  illusions 
which  are  apt  to  creep  in  while  contemplating  this  inter- 
esting subject.  All  this  remarkable  display  of  muscular 
energy  has  most  undoubtedly  been  forced  upon  us  by  the 
ever-increasing  demands  of  manufacturers  for  a  larger 
number  of  castings  at  reduced  rates,  and  is  but  the  natural 
outcome  of  a  healthy  rivalry  and  legitimate  competition 
by  intelligent  founders  to  secure  the  lion's  share  of  this 
largely  augmented  business. 


234  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

*  The  Moulding  Machine  has  come  to  stay/  no  matter 
how  much  opposition  may  be  brought  to  bear  against  it; 
and,  on  the  whole,  I  cannot  see  why  there  should  have 
been  such  widespread  opposition  to  its  more  general  adop- 
tion. Other  trades  have  proved  how  utterly  impossible  it 
is  to  stem  the  tide  of  modern  improvements  in  labor-sav- 
ing machinery;  it  therefore  behooves  us  to  accept  the  inev- 
itable, and  gracefully  welcome  the  iron  man  as  one  of  the 
'fraternity/  Wherever  the  machine  can  be  utilized  for 
the  production  of  castings,  a  truer  and  more  perfect  du- 
plicate of  the  pattern  is  obtained  in  consequence  of  the 
absolute  regularity  and  precision  of  the  whole  operation; 
the  ramming  or  pressing  of  the  sand  around  the  patterns 
being  in  every  instance  the  same,  while  the  withdrawal  of 
the  patterns  and  the  subsequent  closing  of  parts  insures  a 
degree  of  accuracy  impossible  of  attainment  by  the  ordi- 
nary processes. 

It  is  gratifying  to  notice  that  the  various  improvements 
in  electric  and  pneumatic  cranes  are  being  taken  advan- 
tage of  around  the  moulding-machines,  making  it  infinitely 
easier  for  the  operators,  and  naturally  enabling  them  to 
accomplish  a  larger  amount  of  work.  I  am  looking  for- 
ward to  an  early  application  to  this  industry  of  some  of 
the  numerous  admirable  methods  of  mixing  and  conveying 
which  might  be  readily  adopted,  and  thus  aid  in  handling 
the  immense  amount  of  sand  that  must  be  used  every  day. 
"This  is  a  consummation  most  devoutly  to  be  wished." 

Admitting  that  the  moulding-machine  has  well-estab- 
lished claims  for  recognition,  and  also  that  superior  cast- 
ings, within  certain  limits  as  to  magnitude  and  diversity 
of  parts,  can  be  produced  by  its  use,  yet  there  will,  I  pre- 
sume, always  be  a  very  big  margin  of  castings  to  make  de- 
manding the  ripest  judgment  and  calling  forth  the  highest 
order  of  constructive  ability  for  their  successful  accom- 
plishment. 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  GREEN  SAND  WORK.  235 

Scientific  papers  and  trade  journals  hasten  to  inform 
their  readers  of  the  immense  number  of  castings  produced 
in  an  hour  by  the  aid  of  some  new  contrivance,  and  every 
reflective  moulder  gets  a  twinge  once  in  a  while  when  he 
learns  of  the  almost  superhuman  efforts  made  by  some  one 
of  his  craft  to  'beat  the  record'  and  produce  a  larger 
amount  of  work  in  a  given  time  than  has  ever  before  been 
accomplished,  but  we  seldom  hear  much  of  the  patient 
plodding  and  anxious  hours,  and  weeks  in  some  instances, 
which  have  been  industriously  spent  to  produce  some  of 
the  very  intricate  and  critical  work  that  is  being  made  in 
our  best  foundries  every  day. 

To  rightly  determine  who  do  this  work  is  not  a  very 
hard  matter,  simply  because  the  bad  and  mediocre  mould- 
ers constitute  the  large  majority,  making  it  absolutely 
impossible  for  genius  to  fail  in  commanding  attention, 
no  matter  how  modest  and  unassuming  the  individual 
may  be. 

To  have  the  confidence  of  one's  employer  or  foreman  is 
a  source  of  inward  satisfaction  to  any  man;  but,  gratifying 
as  this  most  assuredly  is,  it  is  as  nothing  compared  with 
the  infinite  pleasure  which  accompanies  a  sense  of  your 
ability  to  help  those  around  you  who  unfeignedly  acknowl- 
edge your  superiority  and  disinterestedly  seek  your  aid. 
To  command  such  proud  distinction  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  young  moulder  who  aspires  to  a  leadership  among 
his  fellows;  but  unless  the  aspirant  for  such  high  honors 
determines  to  master  the  first  principles  of  his  trade,  no 
such  eminence  awaits  him  ;  he  may  rest  assured  that  no 
amount  of  pretence  or  bombast  will  successfully  take  the 
place  of  talent  when  the  latter  quality  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial. 

With  the  view  of  inculcating  first  principles  in  the 
minds  of  such  moulders  as  are  anxious  to  examine  into  and 
obtain  a  more  extended  knowledge  of  these  "subjects,  I 


236  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

propose  taking  up  the  several  principles  one  by  one,  using 
familiar  illustrations  in  order  to  their  proper  elucidation. 

When  we  say  that  a  mould,  in  the  ordinary  acceptance  of 
the  term,  consists  of  an  upper  or  cope  part,  in  which  the 
impression  of  the  top  side  of  the  pattern  is  carried;  and  a 
lower,  or  nowul  part,  containing  the  impression  of  all  the 
remaining  parts  of  the  pattern, — we  have  perhaps  said  suf- 
ficient to  satisfy  the  ordinary  seeker  after  knowledge  of  a 
general  kind.  How  far  this  generalizing  comes  short  of  the 
real  thing  can  only  be  understood  by  such  as  are  more  or 
less  skilled  in  the  multitudinous  intricacies  attending  prac- 
tice of  a  higher  order. 

Aside  from  the  special  ability  which  enables  the  moulder 
to  manipulate  the  material  out  of  which  he  fashions  his 
mould,  there  is  constant  and  imperative  demands  on  a 
mature  judgment,  coupled  with  a  measure  of  constructive 
ability  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  carry  and  secure  all  the 
parts  of  his  mould,  not  only  accurately,  but  with  absolute 
safety;  and,  be  it  remembered,  he  must  meet  every  exi- 
gency entirely  unaided  by  any  of  the  ' helps'  which  his 
more  fortunate"  brethren  in  the  iron  industries  can  so  easily 
avail  themselves  of. 

Presuming  that  the  student  in  these  things  has  been 
correctly  instructed  in  all  that  pertains  to  a  knowledge  of 
moulding  common  objects,  we  will  inquire  into  methods 
and  principles  called  forth  in  the  moulding  of  work  greater 
in  magnitude  and  more  elegant  in  design.  One  of  the 
chiei  essentials  for  moulding  the  class  of  work  above  men- 
tioned is  to  separate  the  mould  into  as  many  parts  as  will 
enable  the  workman  to  extract  his  pattern  undamaged,  as 
well  as  to  leave  his  mould  as  free  from  fracture  as  possible; 
and,  at  the  same  time,  easy  access  for  finishing,  setting, 
and  securing  cores,  etc.,  must  be  provided  for. 

As  previously  stated  in  "  The  Iron-Founder/'  page  171,  it 
is  much  easier  to  accomplish  all  this  in  loam  than  in  sand, 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  GREEN-SAND  WORK.   237 

for  what  might  be  a  comparatively  easy  job  if  done  in 
loam,  becomes  at  once  a  critical  undertaking  when  at- 
tempted in  green  sand.  It  is  to  the  latter  class  of  work 
that  this  present  writing  is  devoted. 

Figs.  161, 162,  and  103  represent  cross-sections  of  a  class 
of  work  commonly  met  with  in  almost  all  of  our  tool  and 
engine  shops,  the  first  being  that  of  an  ordinary  lathe 


Fig.  161. 


Fig.  162. 


Fig.  163. 


oed,  while  the  latter  may  be  taken  for  either  ensrine  or 
machine  foundations.  Choice  has  been  made  of  these 
common  objects  simply  because  they  offer  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  a  review  of  the  underlying  principles  which  must 
govern  the  moulder  who  essays  the  accomplishment  of  all 
such  jobs,  and  the  treatment  of  these  will  serve  as  a  guide, 
and  apply  to  all  others  of  a  like  nature. 

One  great  feature  in  all  castings  similar  to  Fig.  161  is  to 
obtain  a  perfect  and  clean  surface  at  the  parts  A,  A,  and 
this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  casting  the  mould  in  the 


238 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


position  shown  at  Fig.  164.  This  method  insures  a  com- 
tively  clean  surface  at  those  parts,  whilst  the  sullage, 
which  always  forms  and  rises  into  the  upper  parts  of  the 
mould,  finds  a  lodgment  where  it  is  less  objectionable. 

When  the  mould  is  wide,  as  in  this  case,  and  the  outside 
projections,  A  and  B,  are  narrow,  the  inside  can  be  lifted 
out  and  the  mould  finished  without  much  trouble;  but  to 
effect  this  properly  we  must  first  have  those  portions  of 


Fig.   164. 

the  pattern  marked  A,  B,  C,  and  D  made  separate  from 
the  body,  as  shown  at  Fig.  164.  The  body  can  then  rest  on 
the  bottom  surface  of  the  mould,  and  the  loose  pieces,  in 
suitable  lengths  for  drawing,  laid  against  it  afterwards. 

The  reasons  for  this  arrangement  will  be  fully  appreci- 
ated if  it  be  understood  that  when  the  body  of  the  pattern 
has  been  withdrawn  from  the  sand,  the  core  O  can  be 
lifted  out  with  perfect  freedom,  and  the  inside  pieces  C 
and  D  can  be  taken  away  without  damaging  the  joint  at 
77,  H.  The  pieces  A  and  B  can  be  then  drawn  inwards, 
the  operation  being  materially  facilitated  by  having  ample 
draught  at  7,  7. 

So  much  for  the  general  features  connected  with  mould- 
ing this  job;  but  we  have  not  considered  how  all  this  is  to 
be  done.  The  casting  may  be  12  or  perhaps  30  feet  long: 
if  the  former  length,  then  one  lifting-plate  would  suffice; 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  GREEN-SAND  WORK.  239 

but  in  the  event  of  the  latter,  it  might  be  advisable  to  have 
two  or  more  lengths  of  core,  divided  at  convenient  inter- 
vals at  the  cross-bars.  The  principle  of  a  lifting-plate  for 
this  class  of  work  is  shown  in  plan  and  side  elevation  at 
Fig.  165,  and  an  end  elevation  of  the  same  is  shown  at  Fig. 
164.  In  all  cases  plates  of  this  kind  must  be  made  pro- 
portionate to  the  weight  to  be  borne  upon  them,  and  due 


Fig.  165. 

consideration  must  be  given  to  such  a  distribution  of  the 
lifting-handles  as  will  insure  the  least  amount  of  spring 
or  bend  in  the  plate. 

All  lifting-handles  should  be  made  as  wide  as  is  practi- 
cable with  a  straight  turn,  as  shown  at  J,  Fig.  164  ;  this 
allows  of  an  easy  adjustment  of  the  hook,  and  thus  insures 
a  straight  lift  on  the  core — something  which  cannot  be  as 
easily  done  when  round  eyes  are  used. 

In  bedding  down  plates  of  this  kind  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  have  them  as  much  above  the  surface  to  be 
lifted  as  will  allow  the  irons  to  rest  thereon,  with  only  as 
much  sand  between  as  will  permit  of  a  solid  bedding  down 


240  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

of  the  iron.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  to  insure  a 
good  job  here,  for  it  must  be  remembered  that  this  is  the 
foundation  upon  which  all  the  weight  of  the  core  must 
rest,  and  no  reliance  can  be  placed  on  soft  sand. 

Additional  stiffness  is  imparted  to  cores  of  this  descrip- 
tion by  alternate  layers  of  irons  laid  crosswise  during  the 
process  of  ramming,  as  seen  at  ICimd  L,  Fig.  164:  and  all 
corners  may  be  still  further  strengthened  by  an  occasional 
gagger  being  set  therein  in  a  diagonal  position. 

Fig.  166  is  a  plan  view  of  cross-iron  intended  for  use  on 
such  work  ;  all  edges  next  the  casting  are  chamfered,  but 
that  portion  which  rests  on  the  plate  is  left  flat,  and  some 


Fig.  166. 

increase  of  thickness  made  in  order  to  meet  the  require- 
ments before  mentioned. 

An  entire  change  of  procedure  is  made  necessary  when 
this  job  is  contracted  in  width.  If  the  opening  betwixt 
the  sides  is  considered  too  small  for  safety  in  green  sand, 
then  recourse  must  be  had  to  a  system  of  dry-sand  cores; 
but  a  reference  to  Fig.  167  will  show  how  a  very  small 
opening  may  with  safety  be  utilized  in  the  moulding  of 
such  jobs  in  green  sand. 

Several  methods  present  themselves  for  overcoming  this 
difficulty,  first  of  which  we  will  notice  the  one  as  previ- 
ously explained,  and  made  possible  on  such  a  reduced  plate 
by  setting  the  same  with  its  upper  surface  on  a  level  with 
the  bottom  bed,  as  seen  at  A,  upon  which  surface  are  laid 
narrow  strips  of  cast  iron  held  together  by  internal  webs,  as 
seen  at  B  in  elevation  and  plan  ;  these,  standing  a  little 
above  the  surface  to  be  lifted,  allow  the  core-iron  C  to 
rest  solid  thereon,  making  it  impossible  for  any  damage  to 
ensue,  no  matter  what  weight  the  superincumbent  core 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  GREEN-SAND  WORK.  241 

may  be.  The  core  is  still  further  stiffened  by  the  rods 
marked  1  to  7,  respectively,  in  pi  an  Fig.  167,  and  in  end  ele- 
vation at  A9  Fig.  168  ;  these  latter  combine  with  the  cross- 
irons  and  corner  gaggers  to  make  this  core,  narrow  as  it  is, 
almost  if  not  altogether  as  firm  as  the  one  previously  de- 


Fig.  167. 

scribed.  It  will  be  seen  at  D,  Fig.  167,  how  to  make  a 
wide  handle  on  a  single  stern,  and  this  particular  item  is 
worth  remembering,  as  it  will  prove  very  useful  in  a  life's 
experience  among  this  class  of  work.  I  need  not  men- 
tion that  the  pattern  is  to  be  in  this  case  as  for  the  last ; 
consequently  the  pieces  E  and  ^are.  entirely  loose  at  the 


242 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


first  move  of  the  core,  thereby  obviating  all  danger  of 
dragging  down  sand  at  the  neck  when  the  core  is  lifted 
out. 

Should  it  be  thought  desirable  to  lift  away  the  outsides 
of  such  a  mould  and  leave  the  core  standing,  the  iron  strips 
^•could  rest  on  solid  bearings  provided  for  the  purpose, 
and  iron  stakes  could  be  driven  down  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  irons  A,  Fig.  168.  In  all  other  respects  the  opera- 


Fig.  168. 

tions  would  be  similar  to  those  previously  explained, 
excepting  that  on  account  of  pieces  E  and  F  having  to 
be  withdrawn  after  the  sides  were  taken  away,  sufficient 
draught  must  be  allowed  to  make  the  operation  easy  and 
safe,  and  the  projections  at  G  and  H  must  necessarily  be 
made  loose  to  fall  down  after  said  pieces  were  drawn  out. 

Two  important  items  in  side  lifting- plates,  or"  draw- 
backs," merit  some  attention  here,  which,  if  once  properly 
understood,  makes  the  rest  comparatively  easy.  First  find 
out  how  much  projecting  sand  is  to  be  carried,  and  make  the 


SECTIONAL   MW$&rNG  FOR  GREEN-SAWty>W$RK.  243 


plate  wide  en^Agi  to  f£lj^|r6|i]pp^  ay  nfij<jii  leigfli  back 
as  will  more  twuff'  com  pen  sate  for  the  weight  i^fcpnt,  as 
seen  at  I  and  /,  l{jg£ty>£.  The  other  item  isj^&^faco  the 
lifting-handles  ^  tS^j^^^O^^ijlQ^^^i^^^wken  with 
the  least  amount  of  troTTbl^^IteaKffi^^'geen  that  in  this 
case  tlie  lifting-handle  K  is  set  a  little  forward  to  make 
up  for  the  extra  weight  on  front,  and  also  that  the  handle 
itself  is  wide,  as  before  explained  ;  and  therefore  any  dis- 
crepancy can  be  easily  rectified  at  the  point  of  suspension. 

Ordinarily,  a  common  drawback  of  this  kind  is  rammed 
up  and  the  hole  entirely  filled  during  the  operation,  to  be 
subsequently  dug  around  when  the  mould  is  to  be  separated; 
but  if  all  of  the  cope  be  contained  within  the  limits  of  the 
drawback,  this  extra  labor  may  in  a  groat  many  instances 
be  saved  by  casting  taper-holes  at  intervals  along  the  back 
of  the  plate,  as  seen  at  L.  into  which  stout  bars  can  be 
driven,  as  seen  at  M,  Fig.  1C7;  these  serve  as  supports  for 
boards  or  plates,  thus  obviating  the  extra  digging  and  ram- 
ming previously  spoken  of. 

A  careful  scrutiny  of  the  right-hand  side  of  Fig.  167  will 
make  it  apparent  that  nil  this  may  be  accomplished  in  a 
more  elegant  manner  than  has  hitherto  been  suggested, 
but  it  must  be  observed  that  what  we  have  been  saying  in 
reference  to  side  plates  is  intended  to  apply  only  when  the 
nature  of  the  order  would  not  warrant  us  in  adopting  more 
systematic  methods,  at  an  enhanced  cost. 

The  rig  shown  consists  of  an  inverted  lifting-plate  N, 
to  which,  by  means  of  brackets  0,  a  back  plate  P  is 
attached;  the  hinges  R,  upon  which  the  whole  side  is  to 
be  turned,  are  placed  at  suitable  intervals  along  the  back 
plate,  taking  care  to  have  them  in  close  proximity  to  the 
brackets.  The  position  of  the  cheek  when  turned  up  is 
indicated  by  the  broken  lines  at  T. 

This  method  is  very  simple,  as  will  be  noticed.  The 
bottom  hinges  U  are  cast  fast  to  the  long  bar  F;  this, 


244 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


when  cast,  is  rammed  firmly  into  the  floor,  with  its  upper 
edge  parallel  to  the  bottom  bed.  Additional  rigidity  is 
given  by  inserting  a  stout  bearing-plate  W,  and  wedging 
under  the  hinge,  as  seen.  The  upper  hinges  are  to  be 
bolted  on  the  back  plate  after  all  has  been  firmly  secured. 
The  fixing  S  is  in  this  case  necessary  to  obtain  the  re- 
quired leverage  for  turning  the  side  over  on  its  hinges, 
and,  as  seen,  is  secured  to  the  bracket  by  set-screws  at  the 
top. 


Fig.  169. 

I  have  shown  at  Fig.  168  how  to  rest  long  narrow  cores, 
such  as  we  have  been  discussing.  The  rig  is  simply  :i 
common  wooden  horse,  with  wedges  B  and  C nailed  fast 
thereon;  by  this  means  the  core  can  be  safely  housed,  and 
the  finishing  proceeded  with  as  comfortable  as  if  it  were 
hanging  in  the  crane. 

When  the  jobs  are  not  too  ponderous  and  it  is  desired  to 
reach  every  part  of  such  moulds,  the  method  described  at 
page  45  of  "The  'Iron  Founder  "is  most  assuredly  the 
best ;  for  by  the  method  there  explained  everything  is  con- 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  GREEN-SAND  WOttK.  245 


tained  within  the  limits  of  the  flask,  and  all  the  extra 
labor  involved  by  bedding  in  the  floor  is  entirely  saved. 

I  have  shown  at  Fig.  169  a  cheap  makeshift  for  small  jobs 
of  this  class:  this  whole  outfit  consists  of  a  plate  At  cast 
in  one  piece,  on  which  is  placed  a  wooden  frame  stiffened 
at  the  waist  by  iron  bars  B,  C,  and  D,  after  the  manner 


Plan 


Fig.  171. 


as  before  explained  at  Fig.  167.  This  frame  mny  be  fitted 
with  a  wood  cope,  or  an  iron  one  can  be  used  temporarily 
if  the  order  will  not  allow  of  an  entire  iron  rig  being 
made. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  projections  occur  at  certain 
places  along  the  length  of  foundations,  etc.,  which,  if  pro- 
vided for  by  the  methods  as  previously  described,  would 
necessitate  the  use  of  some  very  unwieldy  plates.  Fig.  170 


246 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


illustrates  how  such  a  difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  a  very 
simple  arrangement ;  the  figure  includes  plan  showing  the 
wide  projection  extending  from  the  regular  web  B,  B\  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  back  of  the  lifting-plate  C  has  not 
been  made  wider  at  that  point,  thus  making  the  surface  to 
be  lifted  at  A  very  much  wider  than  the  lifting-plate 


itself,  which,  if  not  provided  for,  would  inevitably  collapse 
when  the  plate  was  lifted  away. 

The  staples  E,  seen  in  end  section  above,  are  cast  in  the 
lifting-plate  in  the  position  shown  at  D,  D  in  the  plan  ; 
and,  aa  shown  in  the  figure,  serve  the  purpose  of  wedging 
down  the  bar  F,  seen  to  rest  on  all  the  irons,  and  thus 
securing  them  firmly  to  the  plate.  By  this  means  the 
irons  become  as  one  with  the  plate,  and  absolute  safety  is 
assured. 

Fig.  171  shows  how  the  same  results  may  be  obtained  by 
casting  irons  in  the  lifting-plate;  but  for  general  purposes 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOlt  U  KEEN-SAND  WORK.  247 

the  other  mode  is  by  far  the  best,  especially  when  the  rig 
must  be  used  more  than  once.  The  crank  end  at  A  can 
be  made  very  useful  on  special  occasions,  and  materially 
helps  to  stiffen  a  critical  corner  that  would  otherwise  be 
dangerous  to  risk  in  green  sand. 

Fig.  172  represents  a  method  for  lifting  out  the  inside 
core  when  the  web  extends  round  the  end  of  the  plate.  A 
very  neat  and  effective  method  of  carrying  such  a  core  is 


Fig.   173. 

here  shown  :  the  cross-irons  extend  to  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  end  of  the  plate,  and  the  remaining  portion  it 
cared  for  by  the  crank-irons  A,  set  in  at  right  angles  to, 
and  resting  firmly  on  the  cross-irons. 

The  conditions  on  such  a  job  are  very  much  changed 
when  the  inner  web  is  widened  as  shown  at  Fig.  173.  This 
emergency  is  well  met  by  introducing  a  grate,  or  '  grid/ 
cast  for  the  purpose,  which,  as  in  all  the  other  cases  men- 
tioned, must  have  a  sure  rest  on  the  plate,  to  which  it 
must  be  firmly  secured  by  bolts  at  the  holes  indicated. 
When  from  any  cause  whatever  the  plate  does  not  stand 
high  enough  to  rest  the  grid  upon,  then  recourse  must  be 


248  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

had  to  packing,  as  in  all  cases  of  tin's  nature  we  must  have 
iron  und  iron :  a  strict  adherence  to  this  rule  will  save  many 
a  blunder. 

Fig.  174  shows  how  to  carry  awa-  a  deep  overhanging  side 
in  green  sand,  and  is  simply  the  application  of  the  principle 
set  forth  at  Fig.  170.  The  section  of  lifting-plate  A,  with 


174. 


handle  for  lifting  B,  also  staple  C  for  securing,  is  shown, 
on  which  studs  D  for  the  support  of  bars  E  are  resting. 
On  these  bars  the  first  row  of  irons  F  are  seen  in  position. 
The  same  process  at  the  two  upper  tiers  brings  us  to  the 
top  row  of  irons  G,  on  which  the  bar  I  is  placed  and 
securely  anchored,  the  bolts  J  having  been  previously  set 
in  position  before  the  ramming  commenced.  The  value  of 
this  kind  of  lifting-handle  is  again  forcibly  demonstrated 


SECTIONAL  MOULDING  FOR  QSKZN  BAND  WORK.   249 

in  this  instance,  as  by  changing  the  angle  a  little  almost 
every  inequality  of  weight  may  be  provided  for. 

It'  a  side  must  be  carried  away,  exposing  a  web  or  pro- 
jection of  more  than  ordinary  dimensions,  it  is  just  as  well 
to  make  a  flask  drawback  to  eover  the  whole  thing;  this 
will  serve  the  double  purpose  of  fitting  the  lower  surface 
and  carrying  away  the  side.  Extra  precautions  must  in 


Fig.  175. 

this  case  be  taken  to  provide  suitable  bearings  at  each 
corner  of  the  flask;  these  must  rest  on  anchor-plates  set 
down  solid  below  the  mould.  Fig.  175  is  the  representation 
of  just  such  a  mould  as  would  require  the  arrangement  we 
have  been  describing.  At  A  we  have  the  surface  level  with 
the  floor,  whilst  the  surface  J5,  at  right  angles  to  A,  ex- 
tends to  another  similar  surface  directly  under  the  flask 
C.  With  such  an  arrangement  as  is  here  illustrated,  such 
work,  difficult  as  it  may  seem,  becomes  comparatively 
simple. 


250  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


HYDRAULIC  CYLINDER-MOULDING   UNDER 
DIFFICULTIES; 

OK,   BIG   CASTINGS   IN   LITTLE   FOUNDRIES. 

To  my  certain  knowledge  there  are  no  men,  as  a  class, 
more  ambitions  of  distinction  in  their  profession  than 
foundry  proprietors.  Especially  may  this  be  said  of  such 
founders  as  have  not  the  room  space  or  power  in  their 
foundries  necessary  for  the  safe  handling  of  heavy  castings 
difficult  to  mould,  owing  to  their  great  size  and  complexity 
of  design. 

Many  and  ingenious  are  the  efforts  put  forth  to  accom- 
plish work  that  at  first  sight  strikes  them  as  being  beyond 
their  ability  to  make;  but  on  further  reflection,  and  urged 
by  the  principle  above  spoken  of,  they  have  ultimately 
decided  to  make  the  effort,  cost  what  it  might. 

Moulders  who  have  done  all  their  moulding  in  shops 
provided  with  every  convenience  for  different  kinds  of  work, 
and  whose  every  need  and  requirement  has  been  anticipated 
by  one  or  more  heads  that  have  been  trained  scientifically 
as  well  as  practically  to  a  thorough  knowledge  of  founding 
in  all  its  multitudinous  branches,  know  little  or  nothing  of 
the  skill  and  perseverance  practised  in  the  small  and  less- 
favored  shops  to  mould  castings  which  to  them  would  be  a 
comparatively  easy  task. 

When  a  graduate  from  one  of  the  paragon  foundries 
undertakes  to  mould  similar  work  in  the  latter-mentioned 
places,  particularly  if  it  should  happen  to  be  one  of  the 
meanest,  he  immediately  discovers  the  truth  of  the  above, 
and  mentally  resolves  to  keep  his  faculties  on  the  alert; 
otherwise  his  deficiencies  as  a  thorough  moulder  will  be  at 
once  detected.  His  discovery  of  the  non-existence  of  con- 


HYDRAULIC  CYLINDER-MOULDING.  251 

veniences  and  tools  hitherto  looked  upon  by  him  as  in- 
dispensable for  making  such  work  almost  unmans  him; 
but  when,  upon  hinting  the  advisability  of  procuring  these 
costly  adjuncts,  lie  observes  the  grim,  far-away  look  on  the 
countenances  of  his  new  shopmates,  he  not  unfrequently 
retires  from  his  new  field  of  operations  a  thoroughly  dis- 
heartened man.  This,  of  course,  is  decidedly  wrong;  a 
moment's  reflection  should  convince  him  that  the  cause  of 
his  present  embarrassment  is  the  natural  result  of  his  past 
environments,  which  latter,  aided  by  his  present  oppor- 
tunities, would,  if  taken  advantage  of,  insure  for  him  a 
bright  and  useful  future. 

To  transport  a  mould  or  casting  weighing  20  tons,  in  a 
foundry  more  than  adequately  equipped  with  50- ton  power 
cranes  of  the  latest  improved  patterns,  is  the  simplest 
matter  imaginable.  How  such  moulds  must  be  divided  up, 
and  what  devices  must  be  planned  to  move  the  same  weight 
where  the  capacity  of  the  cranes  do  not  exceed  from  7|  to 
10  tons,  is  best  known  to  many  of  the  ambitious  proprietors 
of  small  foundries,  who  are  every  day  demonstrating  possi- 
bilities beyond  even  what  we  are  now  considering. 

I  am  aware  that  the  consideration  of  the  following  sub- 
ject will  be  provocative  of  a  smile  among  the  luminaries 
whose  effulgent  light  is  dispensed  only  in  the  paragon  shops 
previously  spoken  of;  but  let  such  be  reminded  that  we  are 
attempting  the  accomplishment  of  this  job  in  a  small 
foundry,  where  the  means  are  far  below  its  legitimate 
requirements. 

Let  it  be  required  to  mould  a  plain  hydraulic  cylinder 
2'  10"  outside  diameter,  1'  2'  inside  diameter,  and  14'  0" 
long,  including  2*'  0"  for  head,  at  a  foundry  where  every 
facility  exists  for  the  immediate  execution  of  such  an 
order.  Almost  certainly  there  will  be  a  'plug'  pattern 
ready  at  hand,  requiring  but  a  very  slight  alteration  to 
make  it  suitable  for  the  job;  flasks  are  sure  to  be  found  in 


252  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

sufficient  numbers  to  make  up  the  required  length;  and  in 
all  probability  a  core-barrel,  with  or  without  tripod,  will 
be  found  also, — thus  making  a  full  rig  wherewith  to  com- 
mence the  moulding  of  this  casting  on  the  instant  of  the 
order's  reception. 

Owing  to  the  skill  and  foresight  exercised  in  the  man- 
agement of  such  an  establishment,  the  place  assigned  for 
the  ramming  of  this  class  of  work  is  separate  from  and  in- 
dependent of  the  regular  run  of  crane  work,  and  is  also  in 
direct  communication,  by  rail  or  crane,  with  the  oven; 
neither  is  there  any  interference  with  such  regular  work 
by  the  constant  monopoly  of  the  crane  attendant  upon  the 
ramming  up  of  such  jobs,  owing  to  the  fact  that  this  con- 
tingency has  been  anticipated  and  a  separate  crane  provided 
for  the  purpose. 

The  exercise  of  due  alacrity  on  the  part  of  the  core- 
maker  produces  core  and  mould  simultaneously  at  this 
place  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time,  and  as  there  is 
power  sufficient  to  lift  all  the  mould  together  if  need  be, 
that  particular  item  requires  no  consideration  whatever. 
In  all  probability  there  will  be  from  25  to  40  feet  clear 
above,  in  which  case  the  length  of  the  core  gives  no  con- 
cern whatever,  being  simply  hitched  on  and  suspended 
with  tripod  attached,  lowered  into  the  mould,  centred, 
and  secured.  Subsequent  operations  connected  with  cast- 
ing and  shipping  are.  owing  to  such  excellent  means,  very 
light  events,  and  merit  no  notice  here. 

How  different  is  all  this  when  we  undertake  to  mould 
this  cylinder  in  a  shop  50  feet  square,  having  cranes  capable 
of  lifting  only  10  tons,  with  a  height  from  floor  to  crane- 
hook  of  12J-  feet,  and  without  either  pattern,  flask,  or  core- 
barrel  wherewith  to  make  the  job.  Under  circumstances 
of  this  nature  we  must  either  incur  the  expense  of  new 
patterns  and  flasks,  or  go  back  to  the  time- honored  practice 


HYDRAULIC  CYLINDER-MOULDING.  253 

of  making  it  in  loam/  The  latter  method  is  what  we  pro- 
pose to  explain  as  we  proceed. 

In  the  first  place,  this  casting  will  weigh  about  16|-  tons; 
this,  of  course,  necessitates  the  division  of  the  metal,  for 
pouring  with,  into  at  least  two  portions,  each  of  which 
must  be  less  than  10  tons,  the  latter  weight  being  the  limit 
of  the  crane's  capacity. 

Next,  there  must  be  such  a  separation  of  the  copes 
forming  the  outside  of  the  mould  as  will  permit  the  core 
to  be  inserted  at  about  midway  of  its  length,  the  remaining 
portion  to  be  lowered  over  the  core  subsequently.  Another 
important  item  in  the  general  arrangement  is  to  place  the 
lower  part  of  the  mould  into  the  pit  at  such  depth  as  will 
allow  the  core  when  suspended  to  swing  clear  of  it,  and  as 
the  core  exclusive  of  lifting-tackle  is  about  14'  6"  long,  it 
must  of  necessity  travel  in  a  trench  dug  in  the  floor  from 
the  point  where  it  has  been  suspended  to  the  pit.  The 
labor  of  digging  this  trench  will  naturally  suggest  the 
keeping  of  these  two  points  as  near  together  as  is  consistent 
with  safety. 

As  before  stated,  when  there  is  unlimited  height,  the 
core,  with  its  necessary  appendage,  can  be  lowered  down 
into  its  place  after  the  outside  has  been  nil  set;  this  allows 
the  core  to  swing  from  the  tripod  clear  of  the  mould  during 
the  operations  of  closing;  but  in  this  instance  the  core, 
owing  to  the  altered  circumstances,  must  first  find  a  resting- 
place  at  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  until  the  remaining  part 
of  the  mould  has  been  closed  over,  after  which  the  tripod 
can  be  attached  and  the  core  freed  from  its  temporary 
anchorage. 

For  the  benefit  of  moulders  whose  experience  has  not 
embraced  this  particular  phase  of  the  trade,  I  shall,  by  the 
aid  of  the  accompanying  illustrations,  endeavor  to  make 
plain  how  best  to  mould  such  a  job  in  loam,  where  the  con- 
ditions for  doing  so  are  about  equal  to  those  related  above. 


254  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Fig.  176. 


HYDRAULIC  CYLINDER-MOULDING.  255 

A  glance  at  Fig.  17G  will  give  a  good  general  idea  of  the 
whole  apparatus  required  for  constructing  the  mould;  the 
other  figures  will  be  found  useful,  and  aid  the  mind  in 
arriving  at  an  accurate  knowledge  of  its  numerous  details. 

We  will  first  consider  the  mould  proper,  which  consists 
of  lower  section  A,  that  is  seen  to  be  built  upon  a  stout 
foundation-plate  B,  of  such  form  and  dimensions  as  will 
permit  a  double  course  of  bricks  beyond  a  suitable  thick- 
ness of  loam.  Provision  is  also  made  for  building  in  a 
system  of  running-gates  down  opposite  sides  of  the  mould. 
The  form  of  this  foundation-plate,  as  well  as  all  cope  and 
binding  rings  used  on  the  job,  may  be  seen  at  A,  Fig.  177, 
that  being  a  plan  view  of  the  top  of  the  mould,  exposing 
top  binding-plate,  tripod,  and  one  runner-basin,  the  latter 
being  purposely  drawn  out  of  place  in  order  that  a  sectional 
elevation  of  the  same  with  its  connections  lower  down 
could  be  obtained,  as  seen. 

How  much  of  the  mould  is  contained  in  this  lower 
section  will  be  seen  at  a  glance  by  referring  to  B,  Fig.  177; 
the  bottom  connection  of  one  of  the  running-gates  spoken 
of  is  shown  at  C";  the  opposite  one  (not  shown  here)  must 
be  taken  for  granted.  A  tapered  iron  block  4"  square  on 
its  upper  surface  is  to  be  built  in,  as  seen  at  D,  for  reasons 
that  will  be  made  clear  as  we  proceed.  The  two  upper 
sections  of  cope  may  be  built  separately,  closed  together 
when  green,  finished,  marked  with  guides  for  final  closing, 
and  then  blackened  and  dried  separately. 

To  meet  all  the  conditions  previously  laid  down,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  an  equal  division  of  the  copes  above  the 
bottom  section;  this  makes  them  about  6'  3''  each  in 
length,  and  in  order  to  give  the  requisite  strength  to  the 
structure  it  is  important  that  each  cope  be  bound  together 
as  seen,  the  principle  of  binding  being  to  cast  four  addi- 
tional lugs,  with  staples  on  each  cope-ring,  as  shown  at 
C,  C,  Fig.  1 70.  By  this  means  the  upper  binding-ring  can  be 


256 


THE  IRON-FOUND 


ROPERTY  OF 


Fig.  177. 


HYDRAULIC  CYLINDER-MOULDING.  257 

drawn  down  firmly,  and  thus  make  of  the  whole  courses 
of  brick  one  unyielding  fabric. 

The  upper  cope  is  a  fac-simile  of  the  one  described, 
excepting  that,  instead  of  placing  the  binding-ring  one 
course  of  bricks  below  the  joint,  as  in  the  lower,  it  is  in 
the  higher  placed  on  the  top  course  of  bricks,  with  its 
smooth  side  uppermost;  this  gives  a  better  surface  for  the 
tripod  E  to  rest  upon. 

The  core-barrel,  10"  diameter  outside  and  1"  thick,  in 
this  case  need  not  be  over  elaborate,  nor  possess  any 
element  of  fitting  beyond  the  capacity  of  the  ordinary 


Fig.  178. 

foundry  blacksmith;  a  careful  examination  of  Fig.  177  will 
explain  all  its  parts,  internal  and  external.  Three  lugs, 
with  holes  for  bolts,  are  to  be  cast  on  8"  from  the  top,  as 
shown  in  all  the  figures;  and  midway  betwixt  these  Ings 
and  the  top  a  hole  2£"  diameter  must  be  cast  on  opposite 
sides,  through  which  a  2"  steel  bolt-pin  can  be  inserted  for 
the  purpose  of  suspending  the  core  for  closing,  as  seeu  at 
Figs.  178  and  180. 

The  gudgeon  A,  Fig.  178,  2^"  diameter,  is  purposely  pro- 
vided with  an  eye  for  lifting  by,  but  must  be  screwed  out 
when  the  core  has  been  suspended,  as  seen  at  Fig.  180,  and 
replaced  with  the  one  shown  at  E,  Fig.  177  The  object  of 
the  latter  plug  is  twofold:  at  first  it  is  screwed  exactly 
even  with  the  bottom  of  the  core,  and  forms  a  sure  rest, 
independent  of  the  loam  on  the  barrel,  the  full  value  of 


258  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

which  arrangement  will  be  apparent  when  the  test  of  its 
merits  are  exhibited  further  on. 

At  Fl ',  Fig.  177,  are  shown  plan  and  projected  elevation  of 
the  tripod  to  be  used  on  this  occasion  for  the  final  suspen- 
sion of  the  core.  As  seen,  it  consists  of  three  legs  or  stands, 
connected  by  a  stout  central  ring  which  encircles  the  core- 
barrel;  three  holes,  corresponding  to  the  position  of  the 
holes  in  the  lugs,  are  cast  in  the  central  ring  for  bolts  G  to 
pass  through.  The  height  of  these  Ings  on  the  barrel 
determines  the  depth  of  the  tripod,  and  it  is  always  ad- 
vantageous to  allow  for  a  steel  bearing  about  1"  thick  to 
rest  upon  the  top  ring  for  the  screws  H  to  work  upon. 

Before  commencing  to  close  this  mould,  let  me  draw 
attention  to  the  cross  or  cradle,  shown  at  Fig.  179,  and 
explain  its  use.  It  is  composed  of  two  half -circular  boards 
2"  thick,  halved  in  the  centre  and  strengthened  by  four 
corner-pieces,  as  seen.  The  outer  circle  {it  J  corresponds 
to  the  curve  at  the  bottom  of  the  mould,  whilst  the  curve  at 
K  answers  to  that  of  the  core.  An  iron  pin  L,  2£"  di- 
ameter, is  let  into  and  extends  through  the  cross;  this  pin, 
as  seen  again  at  M,  Fig.  177,  stands  flush  at  both  ends,  the 
lower  end  resting  upon  the  stud  or  block  D,  whilst  the 
upper  forms  an  immovable  support  for  the  core,  the  whole 
weight  of  which  is  carried  by  the  screwed  plug  E,  previ- 
ously spoken  of. 

This  cross,  as  will  be  plainly  seen  at  N,  Fig.  177,  forms 
a  cradle,  which  fits  the  mould  exactly  and  gives  a  central 
guide  for  the  core,  the  bearing  for  which  is,  by  this  con- 
trivance, a  direct  connection  of  the  barrel  with  the  founda- 
tion-plate irrespective  and  independent  of  either  the  mould 
or  core. 

When  this  cradle  has  been  set  into  the  bottom  section  of 
the  mould,  lift  on  the  lower  piece  of  cope  and  proceed  to 
swing  the  core.  As  stated  at  the  outset,  this  can  only  be 
done  by  lowering  the  bottom  end  as  much  into  the  floor  as 


HYDRAULIC  CYLINDER-MOULDING. 


259 


is  lacking  in  height  of  crane  for  effecting  a  clear  swing. 
Fig.  178  shows  the  core  resting,  at  each  end,  in  a  trench 
dug  for  this  purpose;  and  Fig.  180  is  a  rough  representa- 
tion of  the  core  A,  swinging  in  the  crane  and  issuing  from 
the  trench  B,  over  the  mould  in  pit  C. 

In  this  case  the  trench  would  require  to  be  about  3  feet 
deep;  the  lower  cope  standing  at  that  distance  below  the 
floor-line,  as  shown,  would  bring  the  top  of  the  mould,  when 
all  is  closed,  about  '3'  6"  above. 

When  the  core  has  been  lowered  into  the  guide  below 


Fia.  179. 


Fig.   180. 


and  centred  by  packings  which  must  be  firmly  wedged  at 
three  or  four  places  round,  take  care  that  each  packing  is 
placed  opposite  the  binding-ring,  as  shown  at  f\  F,  Fig.  180. 
It  will  here  be  seen  why  we  make  these  copes  so  strong:  the 
binding-ring  serves  the  double  duty  of  keeping  the  mould 
in  good  shape  and  acting  as  a  firm  buttress  against  which 
to  steady  the  core  until  the  upper  cope  has  been  placed, 
when,  if  the  core  is  found  to  be  correct  at  that  point  also, 
the  work  may  be  continued;  but  if  it  should  be  found 
necessary  to  move  the  core  over  a  little  at  the  top,  then 
loosen  the  lower  braces  and  proceed  to  pack  above  as  be- 


260  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

fore,  using  the  inner  edge  of  the  top  binding-ring  as  a 
buttress. 

The  tripod  may  now  be  lowered  over  the  barrel  and 
made  fast  thereto,  after  which  bring  the  set-screws  H,  Fig. 
177,  firmly  down  on  the  steel  packings  until  the  tripod 
bears  the  whole  weight  of  the  core.  If  this  is  done  care- 
fully there  will  be  no  further  centring  to  be  done. 

The  whole  mould,  exclusive  of  the  bottom  section,  is  to 
be  now  lifted  in  order  to  take  out  the  cradle  Nt  and  make 
good  the  bottom  of  the  core;  but  before  proceeding  to  do 
the  latter,  let  the  plug  E9  Fig.  177,  be  screwed  £"  farther 
in:  this  will  permit  a  covering  of  loam  at  that  part,  and 
prevent  damage  from  the  molten  iron. 

By  placing  a  runner- basin  0,  Fig.  177,  at  each  of  the 
down-pouring  gates  P  and  R,  we  obtain  a  correct  plan 
view  of  the  top  of  such  a  mould  when  the  outside  has  been 
rammed  level  with  the  top,  as  seen  at  SS,  which  point,  as 
before  stated,  stands  about  3'  10"  above  the  floor-line. 

For  obvious  reasons,  I  have  omitted  showing  the  cross 
and  slings  used  for  binding  purposes;  but  it  is  well  to  say 
that  there  must  be  no  bungling  here,  as  there  is  an  upward 
pressure  under  this  core  of  about  3^  tons.  Use  a  good  cross, 
and  let  the  packings  come  directly  over  the  ends  of  each 
wing  of  the  tripod. 

Granted  that  the  conditions  for  melting  iron  in  this  shop 
arc  about  equal  with  the  majority  of  our  small  foundries, 
and  remembering  the  weight  of  this  casting,  we  cannot 
conscientiously  withhold  our  meed  of  praise  for  all  such 
founders  as  can  successfully  produce  such  work  creditably 
under  circumstances  so  adverse. 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  261 


THE  FOUNDING  OF  STATUES  IN  IRON  AND 
BRONZE. 

EXPLAINING  THE  'CIRE  PERDUE '  AND  OTHER  PROCESSES; 
WITH  A  REVIEW  OF  THE  ART  AS  PltACTISKD  BY  THE 
ANCIENTS,  AND  UP  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

AFTER  a  careful  review  of  the  subject  of  founding  in  its 
relation  to  sculpture  and  the  fine  arts,  as  ably  presented  by 
eminent  authorities,  past  and  present,  the  writer  ventures 
in  this  article  to  give  a  brief  outline  of  its  history  up  to  the 
present;  with  such  technical  instructions  as  will  at  least 
leave  an  intelligent  knowledge  of  the  several  modes  of 
producing  in  metals  a  true  representation  of  the  original 
inspirations  of  the  sculptor. 

When  stone,  bone,  and  horn  were  the  only  materials 
upon  which  mankind  spent  its  efforts  upon  such  articles  of 
common  use  as  they  then  needed,  it  might  be  then  called 
the  stone  age.  The  bronze  age  did  not  by  any  means  come 
into  existence  at  once,  but  by  a  very  slow  process  of  devel- 
opment. The  native  copper  they  had  with  them  for  the 
fashioning  of  articles  by  beating,  etc.;  but  no  doubt  a  grad- 
ual application  of  fire  for  melting  was  followed  by  some  sort 
of  rude  moulding  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  casts  from 
different  objects,  which  ultimately  brought  about  the  art 
of  mixing  metals,  copper  and  tin  alloy,  forming  bronze, 
being  the  chief  amongst  them  during  this  age.  It  was  not 
until  metallurgy  was  a  well-established  science  that  iron 
came  into  general  use,  and  that  assuredly  accounts  for  the 
rapidity  with  which  it  at  once  asserted  its  supremacy  for 
almost  all  uses  in  science  and  art. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  arts  of  man  in  times  past 
have  been  considerably  influenced  by  local  surroundings. 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Pure  native  copper  in  great  abundance  is  found  in  North 
America,  and  iron  seems  to  have  been  worked  by  some  por- 
tions of  the  Africans,  owing  to  a  peculiarity  of  its  nature, 
from  the  earliest  ages.  No  knowledge  of  the  nse  of  metals 
was  shown  by  the  natives  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  or  the 
northcM-n  portion  of  the  continent  of  America  when  they 
were  first  discovered.  In  the  southern  continent,  however, 
strange  to  say,  they  were  not  ignorant  of  the  art  of  working- 
metals  when  they  were  first  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  found  that  the  Peruvians 
and  Mexicans  could  work  with  considerable  skill  in  gold 
and  copper,  but  had  not  as  yet  found  out  anything  about 
iron. 

It  would  appear  that  the  change  from  the  bronze  to 
the  iron  age  took  place  in  Greece  within  the  time  included 
in  the  most  learned  parts  of  its  history,  while  the  Romans, 
it  is  certain,  had  possessed  a  knowledge  of  treating  iron  ore 
from  the  earliest  days  of  their  existence  as  a  nation.  Iron 
was  known  to  the  Celtic  and  German  tribes  when  the  south- 
ern races  first  went  among  them  for  the  purpose  of  trading, 
etc.;  and  some  parts  of  northern  Europe  to  this  day  main- 
tain a  supremacy  in  the  manufacture  of  iron  not  as  yet 
attained  by  their  almost  immediate  neighbors.  The  art  of 
making  steel  was  first  acquired  by  the  Romans. 

The  metal  which  seems  to  have  found  most  favor  in 
Europe  during  the  earliest  ages  was  gold:  this  may  have 
been  on  account  of  its  being  found  in  many  parts  in  such 
condition  as  admitted  of  easy  working  by  beating,  etc.,  into 
articles  of  adornment  for  the  person,  as  well  as  other  deco- 
rative uses,  its  beautiful  and  shining  quality,  no  doubt, 
being  its  chief  attraction.  We  find  that  tin  was  from  the 
earliest  times  an  article  of  commerce  and  trade  in  the  south 
of  England;  and  when  we  consider  the  fact  that  copper 
also  was  mined  in  large  quantities  in  close  proximity  to  the 
tin  mines,  we  may,  without  any  stretching  of  the  imagina- 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  263 

tiorf,  conclude  just  how  these  two  metals  were  ultimately 
combined  to  form  the  wonderful  alloy  which  we  call  bronze, 
and  which,  no  doubt,  was  the  beginning  of  the  change  that 
determined  the  duration  of  the  stone  age.  The  first  pro- 
cesses were  undoubtedly  the  beating  and  shaping  of  native 
malleable  copper,  followed  by  the  melting  of  the  metnl  and 
running  into  moulds;  and  finally  the  discovery  that  by  the 
same  process  of  smelting  the  ores  could  be  made  to  yield 
whatever  copper  they  contained,  which,  being  mixed  with 
other  metals  in  suitable  proportions,  resulted  in  the  ability 
to  produce  whatever  kind  of  metal  the  needs  and  require- 
ments of  the  early  workers  in  metals  called  for. 

When  the  art  of  smelting  iron  had  at  length  become 
generally  known,  and  arms,  as  well  as  the  numerous  other 
articles  for  Avhich  it  was  better  adapted  than  bronze,  had 
been  successfully  made,  fully  demonstrating  its  superiority 
over  the  latter  metal  for  such  purposes,  the  iron  age  may  be 
said  to  have  arrived. 

It  will  be  evident  to  all  that  there  must  have  been  con- 
siderable attention  given  to  the  subject  of  metallurgy  in 
these  early  ages  before  they  could  have  successfully  accom- 
plished the  manufacture  of  wrought-iron  goods,  as  above 
described;  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  the  Britons,  isolated 
though  they  were  at  that  time,  knew  how  to  manipulate  the 
metuls  before  Julius  Caesar  landed  with  his  armies  in  that 
country:  still,  a  great  impetus  may  have  been  given  to  the 
business  by  that  event. 

Chius  seems  to  have  been  honored  by  the  establishment 
of  a  school  of  sculpture  in  marble  as  far  back  as  660  B.C., 
and  it  was  in  this  place  that  Glaucus  is  supposed  to  have 
introduced  the  art  of  welding  iron,  692  B.C.  Mention  is  also 
made  by  several  authorities  of  the  beautiful  metal  utensils 
which  were  produced  at  this  time,  as  the  enormous  caldron 
with  projecting  griffins'  heads,  and  a  support  formed  of 
kneeling  figures  seven  ells  in  height  (Herodotus,  iv.  152). 


264  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Powsanias  (in.  17,  6)  describes,  as  the  oldest  example  of 
sculpture  in  bronze  which  he  had  seen,  a  statue  of  Jupiter 
at  Sparta;  the  work  of  Clearchus  of  Rhegium,  who  was  by 
some  called  a  scholar  of  Daedalus.  It  was  made  of  plates 
of  bronze  beaten  out  to  the  form  of  the  figure,  and  then 
secured  together  by  fine  nails,  from  which  it  would  seem 
that  the  arts  of  casting,  or  even  of  soldering,  were  then  not 
known. 

Theodorus  of  Samos  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
the  inventor  of  casting  in  bronze,  but  Ulrichs  argues  that 
there  must  have  been  two  artists  by  that  name,  because  the 
one  who  invented  bronze  casting  must  have  lived  before  576 
B.C.,  previous  to  which  date  this  art  may  be  inferred  to  have 
been  known  from  the  remarks  of  Herodotus  (v.  82)  that 
the  Epidauriiins  were  ordered  by  an  oracle  to  obtain  figures 
of  Damia  and  Auxesia. 

The  rival  schools  of  marble  sculpture,  and  the  first  of 
which  we  have  any  distinct  record,  are  Chins,  and  Magnesia 
on  the  Meander.  Bathycles  was  the  leader  of  the  latter 
school,  and  Pausanms  tells  us  that  he  was  the  author  of  the 
figures  and  reliefs  on  the  colossal  throne  of  Appolo  at 
Amyclae.  As  to  the  date  of  these  schools  he  does  not  de- 
cide, but  supposes  about  546  B.C.  The  schools  of  Argus  and 
^Egina  appeared  about  508  and  452  B.C.,  and  bronze  would 
seem  to  have  been  the  material  worked  with  by  the  former 
school,  whose  head  was  Ageladus,  the  tutor  of  Myron, 
Polycletns,  and  Phidias.  The  school  of  JDgina  obtained  a 
great  reputation  for  the  quality  of  the  bronze  used,  and 
their  design  and  workmanship  were  greatly  esteemed. 

Onates,  whose  works  consisted  of  immense  groups,  as  well 
as  other  statues  oi'  gods  and  heroes  (single),  most  of  which 
were  produced  in  bronze,  was  a  graduate  of  the  hitter  school. 
Anaxagorns,  who  executed  the  bronze  statue  of  Zeus,  15  feet 
high,  for  Olympia,  to  celebrate  the  battle  of  Platea,  was  the 
immediate  successor  of  Onates. 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  265 

The  school  of  Magna  Grecia  is  worthily  represented  by 
Pythagoras,  whose  works  were  all  executed  in  bronze.  The 
subjects  of  his  choice  were  invariably  male  figures,  on  which 
he  worked  with  marvellous  skill,  in  order  to  bring  out  a  pro- 
nounced representation  of  muscular  attitude  as  expressed 
under  extreme  bodily  or  mental  strain.  His  statue  of 
Philoctetes  at  Syracuse  was  executed  in  order  to  show  forth 
the  expression  of  pain,  and  it  is  said  that  his  success  was 
such  as  to  move  spectators  when  viewing  it. 

The  Athenian  Phidias  is  supposed  to  have  been  born 
about  500  B.C.  With  his  advent  a  new  order  of  things  pre- 
vailed, as  he  possessed  a  knowledge  of  the  art  coupled  with 
technical  skill  hitherto  unapproached,  and  his  influence 
spread  far  and  wide.  Originally  a  painter,  he  subsequently 
turned  the  whole  force  of  his  genius  to  sculpture,  producing, 
among  other  great  works,  the  colossal  statue  of  Athene  the 
Promachos,  which,  according  to  Pausanias,  was  ordered  by 
the  Athenians,  and  paid  for  out  of  the  Persian  booty. 
When  finished,  it  was  erected  on  the  Acropolis,  the  top  of 
the  spear  in  her  hand  and  the  crest  of  her  helmet  being 
visible  at  sea  from  Cape  Sunium. 

Scopas  of  Parus,  380  B.C.,  settled  in  Athens.  He  was  a 
great  bronze  sculptor,  especially  in  the  portrayal  of  feeling, 
which  he  infused  into  all  his  figures,  whether  human  or 
divine.  He  mnintained  his  reputation  for  unapproachable 
work  about  thirty  years. 

Lysippns  of  Sicyon  also  appeared  about  this  time.  He 
had  been  formerly  employed  by  the  Corinthian  sculptor 
Euphranor,  as  one  of  his  workmen  in  bronze;  but  disdain- 
ing the  lower  walks  of  his  profession,  he  studied  hard,  and 
was  ultimately  rewarded  by  being  esteemed  by  all  as  a 
sculptor  of  genius.  A  remarkable  feature  in  this  man's 
career  was  the  immense  number  of  works  which  passed 
through  his  hands,  which  are  supposed  to  amount  to  the 
enormous  figure  of  about  1500  groups  and  statues,  two  of 


266  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

which  may  be  considered  massive  productions,  being  the 
statue  of  Jupiter  at  Tarentum,  60  feet  high,  and  the 
statue  of  Hercules  at  the  same  place. 

Chares,  the  founder  of  the  school  of  sculpture  at  Rhodes, 
is  preeminently  noted  for  having  produced  the  bronze 
statue  of  Helius  at  Rhodes — an  immense  piece  of  work, 
measuring  105  feet  in  height.  This  colossal  figure  remained 
standing  about  sixty  years,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake, 

The  plastic  arts  were  in  a  degraded  condition  about  the 
fourth  century,  coarse  in  workmanship  as  well  as  wanting  in 
the  higher  principles  of  design.  The  lack  of  expression  in 
works  of  art  at  that  time  shows  that  at  the  most  it  was  but 
imitative  of  the  past.  The  sixth  century  produced  an 
entirely  new  class  of  sculpture  for  decorative  purposes. 
This  was  under  the  influence  of  Justinian,  who  favored  the 
Byzantine  style,  which  latter  can  only  be  considered  a  high- 
class  order  of  metal- work  suitable  for  decorative  purposes, 
and  all  such  as  were  used  for  decorating  the  church  being 
their  highest  aim  to  produce.  No  doubt  this  lapsing  into 
working  of  precious  metals  resulted  from  the  objections 
raised  by  the  Church  at  that  period  against  all  efforts  at 
modelling  figures  which  might  captivate  the  senses. 

The  whole  Christian  world  was  influenced  by  the  art  of 
Byzantium  up  to  the  twelfth  century;  and  as  they  had 
become  the  greatest  workmen'  in  the  precious  metals  at 
that  time,  the  artists  from  all  over  Europe  flocked  to  that 
city,  making  it  the  centre  as  well  as  the  school  of  art- 
work. 

The  Saxon  period  found  the  English  with  but  very  few 
attempts  even  of  stone  buildings,  much  less  sculpture,  and 
the  arts  at  that  time  were  mainly  represented  in  some  few 
specimens  in  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  True  there  was  some 
rude  sculpture  attempted  during  the  Norman  period,  but 
nothing  of  importance  in  this  line  is  noticed  until  after  the 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  267 

thirteenth  century,  when  we  find  that  considerable  encour- 
agement was  given  to  art- work  by  Henry  III.  The  two 
bronze  figures  in  Westminster  Abbey,  modelled  and  cast  by 
William  Torell  of  London,  about  the  year  1300,  will,  how- 
ever, bear  comparison  with  some  of  the  best  works  of  that 
day.  These  castings  are  considered  perfect  as  specimens 
of  the  cire-perdue  process,  one  representing  the  crowned 
head  of  Henry  III.,  and  the  other  that  of  the  head  of 
Eleanor.  William  Austen  of  London  was  the  artist  who 
modelled  and  cast  the  effigy  of  Richard  Beauchamp,  1439, 
and  no  work  of  the  fifteenth  century  has  received  greater 
praise.  Hubert  Le  Scaur,  a  French  sculptor,  who  died 
about  1G70,  modelled  and  cast  the  bronze  equestrian  statue 
of  Charles  I.  at  Charing  Cross,  supposed  to  be  a  fine  speci- 
men of  art-work. 

English  sculpture  during  the  eighteenth  century  was 
mostly  in  the  hands  of  Flemish  and  other  artists,  Rysbrack 
being  one  of  the  chief  amongst  them.  The  more  modern 
public  statues  of  London  are,  as  a  rule,  somewhat  tame  and 
uninteresting,  with  one  brilliant  exception,  which  is  the 
Wellington  monument  in  St.  PauFs  Cathedral,  the  almost 
life-work  of  Alfred  Stevens  (1817-1875).  The  monument 
consists  of  a  sarcophagus  supporting  a  recumbent  bronze 
effigy  of  the  Duke.  At  each  end  is  a  large  bronze  group, 
one  representing  truth  tearing  the  tongue  out  of  the  mouth 
of  falsehood,  and  the  other,  valor  trampling  cowardice 
under  foot. 

There  is  no  doubt  of  Stevens'  work  being  made  more 
valuable  apparently  from  the  fact  that  there  were  so  few 
artists  of  his  day  who  might  be  considered  good.  The 
Athlete  struggling  with  a  Python,  by  Sir  Frederick  Leigh- 
ton,  is  elegant,  both  in  conception  and  design,  but  is  marred 
irreparably  by  the  methods  adopted  for  casting — so  common 
now  in  England,  casting  in  sand  being  preferred  to  the 
nicer  method  of  the  cire-perdue  or  waste-wax  process. 


268  THE  IRON  FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Tliis  latter  process  consists  of  modelling  the  statue  in 
wax,  upon  a  previously  prepared  core,  around  which  the 
cope  is  formed,  and  the  whole  thoroughly  burned.  The 
wax  escapes  during  the  firing,  and  the  space  is  filled  with 
metal.  The  original  model  is,  of  course,  lost. 

The  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  found  the  sculpture 
of  France  the  finest  in  the  world,  but  it  declined  again 
towards  the  end  of  the  fifteentn  century.  Jean  Goujon  (d. 
1572)  was  the  ablest  French  sculptor  of  his  time;  he  com- 
bined great  technical  skill  with  refinement  in  modelling. 
With  the  exception  of  the  two  Coustons,  who  were  remark- 
able mainly  for  their  technical  skill,  no  sculptor  of  merit 
appeared  in  France  during  the  seventeenth  century;  but  a 
century  later  Jean  Antoine  Houdon  (1740-1828),  a  sculptor 
of  most  exceptional  power,  produced  the  standing  colossal 
statue  of  St.  Bruno  at  Rome,  and  other  statuary  of  re- 
markable merit.  The  existing  French  schools  of  sculpture 
are  esteemed  as  the  most  important  in  the  world;  technical 
skill,  combined  with  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  human 
form,  are  possessed  by  many  living  sculptors  to  a  degree 
never  before  attained. 

Germany  continued  under  the  influence  of  Byzantium 
until  the  twelfth  century,  which  fact  the  bronze  pillar 
reliefs  by  Bernward  at  that  time  plainly  show.  The  thir- 
teenth century  found  this  country  far  behind  France  in 
artistic  progress;  but  some  fine  examples  of  fourteenth- 
century  sculpture  are  to  be  found  in  Nuremberg,  also  at 
Prague,  where  the  equestrian  bronze  group  of  St.  George 
and  Dragon  are  to  be  seen  in  the  market-place.  For  three 
generations,  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
the  family  of  Vischer  were  among  the  ablest  sculptors  in 
bronze,  and  few  bronze  sculptors  have  ever  equalled  Peter 
Vischer  in  technique.  His  chief  early  work  was  the  tomb 
of  Archbishop  Ernest  in  Ma^deburs:  Cathedral  (1495). 
The  finest  series  of  bronze  statues  of  the  first  half  of  the 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  269 

sixteenth  century,  viz.,  twenty-eight  colossal  figures  round 
the  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  are  to  be  seen  at 
Innsbruck.  Andreas  Schliiter  of  Hamburg  (b.  about 
1662)  produced  the  colossal  statue  of  Frederick  III.  which 
stands  on  the  bridge  at  Berlin. 

It  was  about  the  fourteenth  century  that  Florence  and 
the  neighboring  cities  became  the  chief  centres  of  Italian 
sculpture,  till  in  the  fifteenth  century  Florence  had  become 
the  chief  art  city  in  the  world. 

No  grander  specimens  of  bronze  statuary  are  to  be  found 
than  the  equestrian  Gattamelata  statue  at  Padua,  done  by 
Donatello,  and  that  of  Colleoni  at  Venice,  the  work  of  Ver- 
rocliio  and  Leopard!.  It  was  about  this  time  that  Michael 
Aiigelo,  the  greatest  master  of  them  all,  made  his  appear- 
ance, and  eclipsed  all  others  by  the  grandeur  of  his  noble 
work.  The  sixteenth  century  saw  a  decline  in  Italian 
sculpture,  although  John  of  Douay  (1524-1608)  produced 
his  bronze  statue  of  Mercury  flying  upwards,  now  in  the 
Uffizi.  He  also  cast  the  fine  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
Cosimo  de  Medici  at  Florence.  Benvenuto  Cellini  (1500- 
1569)  produced  the  colossal  bronze  Perseus  at  Florence. 

The  description  of  the  great  gold  lions  of  Solomon's 
throne,  and  the  laver  of  cast  bronze,  supported  on  cast 
figures  of  oxen,  shows  that  the  artificers  of  that  time  had 
overcome  the  difficulties  of  metal  working  and  founding 
on  a  large  scale;  and  Herodotus  tells  of  the  enormous 
number  of  colossal  statues  for  which  Babylon  and  Nineveh 
were  so  famed.  The  late  excavations  in  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  valleys,  and  the  recent  discovery  of  some  bronze 
statuettes,  shown  by  inscriptions  on  them  to  be  not  later 
than  2200  B.C.,  proves  the  early  development  of  this  branch 
of  art  among  the  Assyrians. 

Early  Greek  sculptors  seem  to  have  executed  nearly  all 
their  sculpture  in  metal,  preferably  to  marble;  and  how 
much  superior  in  technique  theirs  was  to  some  of  our  mod- 


270  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

era  works  is  very  clearly  demonstrated  by  the  great  bronze 
lions  of  the  Nelson  Monument,  London,  which  show  in 
a  marked  manner  how  much  inferior  is  the  coarse  sand 
casting,  now  prevalent  in  England  and  elsewhere,  to  the 
more  delicate  tire-perdue  process. 

The  Japanese  are  great  masters  in  all  manipulations  of 
metals  and  amalgams,  and  possess  secret  processes  unknown 
to  workmen  elsewhere,  showing  a  great  mastery  of  their 
material  in  both  designing  and  moulding. 

Casting  is,  in  all  probability,  the  oldest  method  of  metal- 
work,  and  this  has  passed  through  three  stages:  the  first, 
solid  castings,  such  as  were  made  in  ancient  times  by  form- 
ing moulds  in  clay,  stone,  or  sand,  and  pouring  in  the  fluid 
metal  until  the  hollow  was  full.  The  next  stuge,  according 
to  examples  now  in  the  British  Museum,  was  to  introduce 
an  iron  core,  in  order  to  save  the  bronze  or  even  more 
valuable  metal.  The  latter  method  most  certainly  had  its 
disadvantages,  as  the  casting  must  necessarily  split  on  such 
a  rigid  core.  The  third  stage,  which  appears  with  some 
modifications  to  be  the  method  now  adopted,  was  the  em- 
ployment of  a  clay  or  sand  core,  round  which  the  figure 
was  cast  as  thin  as  possible  to  save  metal.  This  process 
was  very  successfully  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans; 
and  whilst  their  exact  methods  are  not  certainly  known, 
it  is  more  than  probable  that  they  were  acquainted  with  the 
cire-perdue  process,  which  was  so  largely  practised  at  a 
later  day  by  the  great  European  artists  in  bronze,  and  still 
followed  to  this  day. 

In  times  past  the  moulding  as  well  as  the  casting  of  a 
statue  was  invariably  done  by  the  sculptor,  whereas  at  the 
present  time,  by  the  use  of  a  clay  model  or  a  plaster  cast 
of  the  same,  the  business  of  sculptor  and  moulder  have 
become  distinct  specialties. 

One  great  objection  to  the  very  elegant  process  of  cire 
perdue  is  that  the  work  of  the  sculptor  must  be  repeated 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  271 

as  often  as  failure  to  reproduce  his  efforts  occurs  in  the 
foundry;  consequently  the  whole  system  of  statue  moulding 
has  been  undergoing  a  complete  change  of  late  in  order  to 
keep  the  model  first  supplied  by  the  sculptor  intact,  and 
always  ready  for  a  repetition  of  the  work  should  circum- 
stances demand  it. 

Models,  in  clay  or  plaster,  of  large  statues  are  now  sup- 
plied by  the  sculptor,  from  which  a  correct  impression  in 
plaster  is  at  once  obtained  by  the  founder.  Such  a  model 
of  an  antique  bronze  of  the  Townley  Venus  is  shown  at 
Fig.  181,  a  plaster  impression  of  which  is  obtained  by  first 
marking  off  two  or  more  main  divisions  of  the  model 
and  noting  the  parts  which,  owing  to  the  peculiar  depres- 
sions on  the  surface,  would  fail  to  separate  from  the  model 
without  fracturing  the  part ;  these  found,  a  separate 
piece  of  mould  is  formed  in  plaster  at  such  places,  the 
outer  surfaces  of  which  will  leave  their  impression  in  the 
outer  copes.  The  copes  are  formed  by  running  plaster 
over  the  model,  the  several  divisions  of  which  are  obtained 
by  constructing  a  wooden  or  clay  boundary  at  the  points 
where  it  has  been  determined  to  separate  them,  and  are 
held  firmly  together  by  skeleton  frames  constructed  with 
iron  bars  which  are  laid  in  the  plaster  during  the  process 
of  covering  the  model.  After  these  divisions  have  been 
made  in  this  manner,  one  by  one,  and  have  become  suffi- 
ciently set  or  hardened,  they  are  carefully  lifted  away,  set 
down  on  their  backs,  and  the  false  pieces  or  cores  with- 
drawn from  the  model  and  set  in  their  respective  seatings 
in  the  copes.  A  correct  impression  of  the  model,  no 
matter  how  intricate  its  form,  is  thus  obtained,  over  which, 
after  well  oiling,  the  requisite  thickness  is  laid  on  in  wax 
by  repeated  coats  applied  with  a  brush.  The  mould  being 
now  ready  for  forming  the  core  within,  a  suitable  core-iron 
is  formed  by  attaching  cross-bars  to  one  or  more  main  cen- 
tral rods,  such  cross-bars  reaching  into  the  remote  parts  of 


272  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


Antique  Bronze  of  the  Townley  Venus. 
Fig.  181. 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE. 


273 


274  THE  IRON-  FO  UND  ER  8  UPPLEMENT. 

the  core  as  seen  at  Fig.  182;  this  skeleton  core-iron  is  then 
placed  in  position  inside  the  prepared  mould,  and,  after 
making  the  necessary  preparations,  by  means  of  pipes,  A  A, 
for  conveying  away  the  gases  from  all  remote  parts,  the 
composition  or  cement  is  poured  therein  from  the  highest 
part  of  the  mould.  The  cement  commonly  used  for  cores 
in  bronze  castings  is  composed  of  two  parts  of  finely 
ground  fire-bricks  to  one  part  plaster  of  Paris,  mixed  with 
water  to  the  consistency  of  cream. 

The  setting  or  hardening  of  cores  formed  from  these 
materials  takes  place  very  soon,  so  that  the  plaster  copes 
may  be  taken  away  almost  immediately.  By  exercising 
care,  this  may  be  done  without  much,  if  any,  damage  to 
the  surface  of  the  newly-formed  wax  model.  The  core, 
surrounded  with  its  wax  fac-simile  cf  the  original  model, 
is  now  stood  on  a  suitably  provided  base,  and  only  needs 
the  requisite  anchors  for  keeping  it  in  position  when  the 
wax  has  been  melted  out,  which  emergency  is  met  by  in- 
serting, at  suitable  places,  rods  of  bronze  through  the  core, 
as  seen  at  BE,  Fig.  182,  the  ends  of  which  standing  out  some 
distance  from  the  figure,  are  made  secure  by  being  cemented 
firmly  into  the  cope,  when  the  latter  is  duly  formed. 

The  next  process  is  to  connect  the  wax  of  the  figure  with 
a  number  of  holes  provided  at  the  base,  as  shown  at  CO, 
by  means  of  outlets  composed  of  the  same  material ;  also, 
to  attach  wax-running  gates,  DD,  at  such  places  and  in 
such  number  and  size  as  will  insure  a  safe  and  clean  pour. 
The  gases  generated  inside  the  mould  when  it  is  cast  are 
led  away  at  the  top  by  means  of  vents  direct,  or  they  may 
be  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  gates  in  wax. 

After  inlets,  outlets,  and  vents  have  been  all  secured  to 
their  respective  places  on  the  figure,  the  whole  surface  is 
painted  over  with  a  fine  composition  of  some  kind;  some 
use  fine  brick-dust  mixed  to  a  consistency  with  thin  glue 
water,  whilst  others  prefer  the  white  of  egg,  or  molasses, 


275 


with  the  Ottc£-clust,  actfdnftn**  to  thefjifrture^fljthe  work. 
Wiien  abou Vpf^quarter  inch  of  this  compo^ftign  has  been 
laid  over  the^j^c.e^nnd  become  mo.d^ft^pf  hard,  tlie 
common  or  ordimTty  loam,,  with  a  plentifHT  admixture  of 
liorse  manure  or  cow  haii'7 nitty  1xT applied ,  and  a  backing 
of  bricks  built  round,  after  the  usual  manner.  It  is  usual, 
in  some  cases,  to  surround  the  bricks  with  iron  curbs  at 
once,  so  that  all  danger  from  the  jarring  incident  to  pit 
ramming  may  be  avoided. 

Whatever  method  of  firing  be  adopted,  it  is  necessary 
that  these  moulds,  inside  and  outside,  be  thoroughly  dried. 

As  will  be  readily  seen,  the  wax  thickness,  followed  by 
gates  and  vents,  will  begin  to  flow  out  at  the  lower  aper- 
tures, CC,  Fig.  182,  as  soon  as  the  heat  begins  to  take  effect, 
and  a  constant  flow  will  continue  until  every  portion  of 
wax  will  have  run  out,  leaving  the  core  and  cope  held  in 
their  true  relative  positions  by  the  bronze  rods  BE,  previ- 
ously spoken  of. 

When  the  whole  has  been  thoroughly  dried,  it  only  re- 
mains to  plug  the  lower  apertures  CC,  through  which  the 
wax  has  escaped,  form  the  runner-basin,  and  all  is  ready 
for  running  in  the  metal. 

The  wax  used  for  the  above  purpose  is  composed  of  one 
part  each  of  tallow,  turpentine,  and  pitch  to  ten  parts  of 
wax.  The  fine  surface  of  these  moulds  absorbs  more  or 
less  of  the  carbon  of  these  ingredients,  and  by  this  means 
is  rendered  sufficiently  refractory  to  resist  the  burning 
quality  of  the  molten  bronze,  and  it  is  to  this  happy  com- 
bination that  the  beautiful  results  of  the  circ-perdue  pro- 
cess is  owing. 

Sometimes  these  main  copes,  as  provided  by  the  method 
explained  above,  are  at  once  filled  with  the  core  composi- 
tion, after  the  skeleton  core-iron  has  been  placed  therein, 
the  copes  being  then  taken  away  and  the  thickness  pared 
off  by  the  moulder,  after  which  they  are  again  adjusted 


276  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

round  the  core,  and  the  space  run  full  of  wax.  The  pro- 
cess is  to  be  then  continued,  as  before  explained. 

The  moulding  of  statuary  in  cast  iron  is  almost  as  exclu- 
sive a  business  as  that  in  bronze.  The  various  manipula- 
tions must  necessarily  be  more  difficult,  because  the  mate- 
rials used  for  constructing  the  moulds  being  more  open,  are 
proportionately  less  tough,  and,  consequently,  greater  in- 
genuity is  demanded  to  construct  the  moulds  so  that  they 
will  endure  safely  the  handling  to  which  they  are  subjected. 

Cast  iron  in  a  molten  condition,  being  hotter  than  bronze, 
remains  fluid  longer;  this,  added  to  the  fact  that  when 
the  former  metal  is  used  the  castings  must  be  much  thicker 
than  the  ones  in  bronze,  makes  it  much  more  difficult  to 
obtain  a  smooth  surface,  because  as  long  as  the  metal  is  in 
a  fluid  state,  and  aided  by  the  pressure  behind,  it  is  melt- 
ing the  non-refractory  particles  of  sand  on  the  surface, 
and  forcing  its  way  into  the  coarser  materials  of  which  the 
mould  is  made.  To  obviate  this  as  much  as  possible  is  one 
of  tho  chief  processes  in  the  production  of  cast-iron  statu- 
ary, and  no  expense  is  spared  to  obtain  the  most  refrac- 
tory facings  known. 

For  cast-iron  statuary  the  sculptor  must  first  secure  the 
services  of  a  competent  moulder,  who  proceeds  to  form  the 
core  according  as  he  is  directed.  Of  course  the  moulder 
must  follow  the  instructions  of  the  sculptor  in  everything 
pertaining  to  the  contour  of  the  core,  but  he  must  use  his 
own  judgment  in  arranging  all  the  supports,  anchors,  vents, 
etc.,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  before  him. 
After  the  core  has  been  duly  formed  by  the  moulder  the 
sculptor  proceeds  to  form,  his  figure  thereon,  using  fine 
clay  for  the  purpose,  which,  like  any  ordinary  piece  of 
loam  work,  forms  the  thickness,  and  is  taken  off  when  the 
impression  has  been  obtained.  The  moulder  in  building 
his  cope  around  the  figure  takes  cognizance  of  all  its  irreg- 
ularities, and  provides  for  a  correct  separation  of  all  its 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  2*7 

parts  with  as  little  damage  as  possible  to  the  original  de- 
sign. According  to  the  depth  and  direction  of  the  various 
depressions  on  the  surface  of  the  statue,  so  will  the  number 
and  complexity  of  the  divisions  of  his  mould  be.  During  the 
process  of  building  provision  is  made  for  pouring  by  plac- 
ing running-gates  at  favorable  points ;  hooks  and  staples 
are  inserted  in  the  various  small  pieces,  or  false  cores, 
which  must  necessarily  be  formed  separate  from  the  main 
copes,  these  hooks  being  afterwards  used  for  fastening  them 
to  the  main  cope  before  the  final  closing  of  the  mould. 
The  separating  of  the  mould  is  a  delicate  operation,  requir- 
ing considerable  experience  and  judgment  on  the  part  of 
the  moulder. 

After  all  the  parts  have  been  built  around  the  statue 
the  edges  of  the  joints  are  made  even,  and  guide-marks 
made,  so  that  the  final  closing  may  be  facilitated;  they  are 
then  taken  away,  one  after  another,  carefully,  till  all  have 
been  removed,  after  which  the  clay  figure  or  thickness  is 
removed,  and  the  mould,  inside  and  outside,  treated  after 
the  manner  usual  for  ordinary  loam  work,  dried  thor- 
oughly, closed  together,  rammed  in  the  pit,  and  cast. 

The  system  of  moulding  colossal  statuary  in  pieces,  to  be 
afterwards  joined  together  by  pinning,  etc.,  is  fast  gaining 
favor  where  the  old  prejudices  regarding  the  supposed  dis- 
credit of  producing  statues  piecemeal  have  disappeared, 
and  very  many  of  these  figures,  including  the  Statue  of 
Liberty,  New  York  Harbor,  are  now  made  in  this  manner. 
Cost  for  transportation,  risks  in  moulding,  chances  for  nn- 
soundness,  and  weight  of  metal  used  in  moulding  colossal 
statuary  by  the  old  methods  are  by  this  means  considerably 
reduced,  whilst  it  is  claimed  that  all  seams  can  be  so  neatly 
fitted  as  to  defy  the  keenest  scrutiny  to  discover  where  the 
junctions  have  been  made.  It  is  also  claimed  that  by  this 
separation  into  convenient  sections  they  can  be  easily  made 
in  sand,  which  gives  a  better  impression  and  greater  regu- 


218  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Lirity  of  thickness  ;  also,  that  the  thickness  can  be  easily 
arranged  to  give  the  most  metal  where  the  greatest  strains 
exist. 

The  process  of  moulding  in  sections  is  to  divide  the 
plaster  model  at  such  places  as  will  be  most  favorable  for 
moulding,  due  consideration  being  given  to  the  parts  which 
will  best  hide  the  points  of  junction,  when  they  are  joined 
together.  The  cutting  is  done  with  small  saws,  and  after 
the  several  pieces  have  been  provided  with  the  requisite 
tenons  and  mortises  for  joining  together  when  cnst,  and 
any  weak  parts  strengthened  by  cross-stays,  should  the 
model  be  hollow,  they  are  ready  for  the  moulder. 

The  flasks  for  this  class  of  work  are  not  necessarily  differ- 
ent to  those  in  ordinary  use,  except  that  the  nicest  fit  is 
indispensable.  Three  pieces  of  flask  are  needed,  one  being 
simply  a  frame ;  the  other  two,  although  constituting 
upper  and  lower  flasks,  are  to  be  both  barred,  and  for  that 
reason  may  be  both  called  copes.  On  account  of  the  irreg- 
ularities of  the  surfaces  they  are  usually  made  with  loose 
bars.  These  flasks  are  always  best  when  they  are  made 
interchangeable.  For  moulding  the  outside  of  the  piece 
of  model  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  a  portion  of  the  body 
of  Fig.  181,  one  half  of  the  model  is  set  into  the  frame-piece 
as  a  roll-over  flask  ;  the  ends  are  then  rammed  flush  with 
the  model,  and  the  outside  formed  by  ramming  false  cores 
all  round  if  necessary.  These  false  cores  overcome  all 
difficulty  with  regard  to  broken  and  uneven  surfaces,  as 
they  can  be  made  to  separate  at  such  places  and  in  a  direc- 
tion favorable  to  a  clean  lift.  "When  these  false  cores  have 
been  all  formed  out  of  fine  tough  sand,  suitably  strength- 
ened with  irons,  and  provided  with  the  necessary  lifting- 
staples,  also  the  running-gates  set  therein  at  the  proper 
places,  a  joint  is  made  over  all  with  parting-sand  and  the 
first  cope  set  thereon  and  rammed.  This  done,  the  cope  is 
lifted  and  set  down  on  its  back,  the  false  cores  are  taken 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  279 

off  the  model  and  placed  in  their  respective  places  in  the 
cope,  which  now  presents  the  exact  impression  of  this  side 
of  the  model,  and  must,  after  due  preparation,  be  used  for 
ramming  the  first  half  of  the  main  core. 

The  opposite  side  of  the  model  is  now  treated  exactly  as 
was  the  first  up  to  the  point  of  lifting  the  cope,  which, 
when  rested  on  its  buck,  must  not  have  the  false  cores 
placed  therein,  as  in  the  first  cope,  until  they  have  been 
utilized  for  forming  the  upper  half  of  the  main  core.  As 
before  stated,  the  first  half  being  duly  prepared  by  laying 
thereon  a  thick  coat  of  parting-sand,  a  layer  of  core-sand 
is  then  spread  all  over,  and  the  core-iron  placed  in  position ; 
and  after  due  provision  has  been  made  for  vents  and  sup- 
ports—somewhat  after  the  manner  shown  at  Fig.  182 — the 
lower  half  is  rammed  level  with  the  joints  of  the  first 
cores;  the  upper  half  is  then  formed  by  placing  the  false 
cores  of  the  second  half  in  their  respective  order  over  the 
lower  ones,  continuing  the  ramming  of  the  main  core  in- 
side as  they  are  thus  set  over  alternately;  thus,  step  by 
step,  continuing  the  process  until  the  last  false  core  has 
been  so  placed,  and  by  this  means  the  main  core  formed. 
The  false  cores  are  now  lifted  away  and  secured  into  their 
respective  seatings  in  the  second  cope. 

All  that  now  remains  to  be  done  is  to  shavo  off  the  thick- 
ness at  this  half  of  the  main  core,  cover  with  the  roll-over 
flask,  fill  with  sand,  and  ram  hard  enough  to  support  the 
core,  which,  when  the  two  flasks  have  been  fastened  to- 
gether, is  reversed,  the  cope  lifted  off,  and  set  down  on  its 
back  like  the  other.  The  false  cores  are  now  lifted  off  the 
main  core  and  secured  in  their  seatings  when  the  remain- 
ing half  of  the  main  core  is  shaved  down,  the  moulds  fin- 
ished and  blackened,  and  all  is  ready  for  the  oven. 

All  sands  for  false  cores  and  other  intricate  parts  of  the 
outside  of  moulds,  made  like  the  above  described,  should  be 


280  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

of  a  fine,  tough,  but  open  nature;  whilst  that  for  the  cores 
should  be  chosen  principally  for  its  openness. 

For  very  small  statuary  in  bronze  it  is  only  necessary  to 
make  a  small  block  core  out  of  the  porous  cement,  which, 
though  porous,  is  very  tenacious,  and  admits  of  being  cut 
and  filled  to  any  form  required.  When  this  has  been 
formecj  and  due  allowance  made  for  thickness,  the  artist 
proceeds  to  lay  on  the  wax,  on  which  he  may,  according  to 
his  ability,  bring  out  the  most  delicate  lines  and  curves 
imaginable.  When  the  figure  has  been  completed  on  the 
wax  thickness,  it  only  remains  to  thrust  a  few  wires 
through  the  whole,  and  surround  it  with  an  iron  flask,  fill- 
ing the  space  between  with  the  porous  cement.  By  the 
application  of  heat  the  wax  is  caused  to  run  from  the  mould 
at  the  bottom,  through  holes  provided  for  that  purpose, 
and,  as  the  core  is  held  in  a  correct  position  by  the  wires 
which  are  firmly  fixed  in  both  the  inner  and  outer  cement 
bodies,  the  mould,  when  dry,  can  be  turned  with  the  holes 
on  top;  the  latter  serving  the  purpose  of  running-gates  for 
filling  the  space,  previously  occupied  by  the  wax,  with 
metal.  The  greatest  care  must  be  exercised  in  this,  as  in 
the  other  methods,  to  have  the  mould  thoroughly  dry  and 
free  from  steam,  and  besides  vents  from  the  core,  there 
must  be  free  vents  from  all  points  in  the  casting  in  which 
air  or  steam  might  get  confined.  By  this  means  the  most 
remote  and  deliciite  parts  of  the  mould  are  reached  by  the 
fluid  metal,  and  a  good  impression  of  the  whole  of  the 
original  wax  figure  obtained. 

The  figure  to  be  produced  in  bronze  may,  if  not  too  large 
and  unwieldy,  be  worked  direct  after  this  manner:  A 
plaster  cast  of  the  figure,  previously  wrought  and  finished, 
or  any  other  finished  object,  is  the  pattern  from  which  the 
moulder  takes  an  impression  in  two  halves.  These  impres- 
sions are  carried  off  the  model  in  stout  iron  skeleton 
frames,  after  the  manner  previously  described.  The  mate- 


STATUES  IN  IRON  AND  BRONZE.  281 

rial  from  which  they  are  made  being,  in  this  case,  com- 
posed of  a  mixture  of  one  third  plaster  of  Paris  to  two 
thirds  fine  brick-dust,  made  to  the  right  consistency  with 
water,  not  only  enables  the  moulder  to  take  a  good  impres- 
sion of  the  model,  but  being  made  porous  by  the  brick-dust 
introduced,  may  be  used  as  moulds  proper  for  the  outside. 
Sheets  of  fine  clay  are  now  rolled  out,  and  spread  evenly  all 
over  the  surface  as  thick  as  it  is  intended  the  metal  should 
be.  When  this  has  been  done  the  moulds  may  be  clamped 
together,  and  the  inside  filled  with  the  same  mixture  as 
for  the  copes;  but  if  the  core  is  large  or  complicated,  the 
skeleton  core-iron  must  be  used  as  in  the  cases  before  men- 
tioned, not  forgetting  to  make  provision  for  carrying  away 
the  gas  from  the  heated  core,  etc.  The  mould  can  now  be 
again  separated,  the  core  lifted  out,  and  the  thickness 
removed ;  and  as  it  is  really  composed  of  a  top  and  bottom 
flask,  the  joints  may  be  utilized  for  carrying  the  air  and 
steam  from  the  interior  of  the  mould  to  the  top  by  means 
of  gutters  cut  therein.  If  it  is  thought  advisable  to  run 
the  metal  into  the  mould  at  any  point  below  the  top,  gates 
may  also  be  prepared  in  said  joint.  When  copes  and  core 
have  been  thoroughly  dried,  the  closing  proceeds  in  the 
regular  way,  excepting  that  all  studs  required  for  holding 
the  core  in  position  must  be  made  of  bronze. 

All  that  remains  to  be  done  after  the  upper  half  has 
been  closed  over  is  to  bind  the  whole  firmly  together  with 
stout  iron  clips  provided  for  the  purpose,  elevate  the  mould 
to  the  required  angle,  make  the  pouring-basin,  and  cast. 
The  nature  of  the  materials  used  for  both  core  and  cope  in 
this  instance  admits  of  no  half-measures  in  drying — this 
must  be  absolute. 

The  model  or  pattern,  in  this  instance,  is  saved. 

No  country  equals  France  for  the  number  of  its  fine-art 
foundries,  the  principal  ones  being  in  and  about  Paris. 
The  most  systematic  methods  prevail,  and  no  effort  is  spared 


282  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

that  will  enable  them  to  maintain  the  supremacy  which  at 
this  day  rightfully  belongs  to  them;  economy  is  studied  in 
every  detail  of  management  as  exactly  as  it  is  in  the  best- 
managed  factories  of  the  day.  Some  of  their  inventions 
for  the  treatment  of  art- work  in  the  foundry  are  of 
world-wide  reputation,  and  must  be  seen  to  be  fully  appre- 
ciated. 

The  Egyptian  bronze  consisted,  according  to  Bessari,  of 
two  thirds  brass  and  one  third  copper.  Pliny  says  that 
the  Grecian  bronze  was  formed  by  adding  one  tenth  lead 
and  one  twentieth  silver  to  the  two  thirds  brass  and  one 
third  copper  of  the  Egyptian  bronze,  and  that  this  was  the 
proportion  afterwards  made  use  of  by  the  Roman  statua- 
ries. 

The  modern  bronze  is  commonly  made  of  two  thirds 
copper  fused  with  one  third  brass,  and  recently,  owing  to 
the  great  demands  for  ornaments  and  decorative  furniture, 
lead  and  zinc  in  small  proportions  have  been  added.  These 
additions,  it  is  said,  increase  the  fusibility  of  the  alloy,  and 
facilitate  the  process  of  casting. 

In  mixing  plaster,  never  pour  the  water  on  the  powder, 
but  shake  the  powder  into  the  water,  taking  care  that  it 
does  not  run  into  lumps.  Proceed  in  this  manner  till  the 
powder  comes  to  the  level  of  the  water  and  then  stop,  if  a 
thin  plaster  is  wanted;  a  little  more  if  a  stronger  plaster  is 
needed.  Amateurs  commit  the  error  of  being  too  hasty  in 
their  movements,  stirring  the  whole  as  it  is  being  poured, 
and  using  too  mnch  of  it.  When  the  whole  of  the  gypsum 
has  been  poured  in,  allow  the  ingredients  to  remain  undis- 
turbed for  a  few  seconds,  and  then  stir  gently  with  a 
spatula;  when  it  has  assumed  the  consistency  of  cream, 
pour  at  once  into  the  mould;  it  will  then  set  in  ten  min- 
utes, and  be  ready  for  taking  out  in  half  an  hour. 


THE  ART  OP  TAKING  CASTS.  283 


THE  ART  OF  TAKING  CASTS. 

EXPLAINING   THE   SUBSTANCES    USED  :   PLASTER   OF   PA  MS, 

BEESWAX,  DOUGH,  BREAD-CRUMBS,  GLUE,  ETC.;  TO 
TAKE  A  CAST  IN  METAL  FROM  ANY  SMALL  ANIMAL, 
INSECT,  OR  VEGETABLE;  TO  TAKE  A  CAST  IN  PLASTER 
FROM  A  PERSON'S  FACE;  TO  TAKE  CASTS  FROM  MED- 
ALS; TO  TAKE  CASTS  IN  ISINGLASS;  ELASTIC  MOULDS, 
ETC. 

IN  order  to  obtain  a  cast  from  any  of  the  above-men- 
tioned objects  the  first  operation  is  to  procure  a  mould,  by 
surrounding  the  thing  to  be  copied  with  some  material 
which  can  be  pressed  into  all  the  various  parts  of  the  fig- 
ure. This  will  be  the  mould,  which,  when  it  has  become 
sufficiently  hard,  is  to  receive  some  substance,  by  pouring 
or  otherwise,  that  will  correctly  fill  all  its  parts,  and  be- 
come when  set  an  exact  counterpart  of  the  original  figure. 
The  manner  of  moulding  will  always  depend  upon  what- 
ever is  to  be  copied;  should  there  be  no  projecting  parts, 
or  cavities  undercut,  the  method  is  simple  enough,  as  it  is 
only  necessary  to  surround  it  with  the  mould-forming  sul 
stance  and  withdraw  the  same  direct. 

SUBSTANCES   USED    FOR   FORMING   THE   MOULD. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  wax,  metal,  and  other  substances  are 
used  for  this  purpose,  according  as  the  urgency  of  the  case 
demands.  Plaster  of  Paris,  prepared  as  described  in  arti- 
cle "Statue  Founding,"  and  brought  to  the  consistency  of 
cream,  may  be  poured  to  any  thickness  required,  always 
observing  the  precaution  to  oil  well  the  object  to  prevent 
the  plaster  from  adhering. 


284  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

A  very  good  mould,  when  it  is  required  to  use  the  same 
frequently,  may  be  made  from  the  wax  mixture  given  in 
the  article  mentioned  above;  but  in  all  cases  where  the 
position  of  the  model  is  vertical  or  in  any  position  liable  to 
more  than  ordinary  rough  treatment,  it  is  best  to  form  the 
mould  of  modeller's  clay,  such  as  described  in  article  "Pat- 
tern Modelling  in  Clay,"  page  189.  This  may  be  applied 
to  the  surface  in  sheets,  previously  sprinkled  with  whiting 
to  prevent  sticking  when  it  is  to  be  removed. 

BEESWAX,    DOUGH,   BREAD-CRUMBS. 

The  above-mentioned  substances  are  excellent  materials 
for  taking  impressions  of  small  objects;  especially  are  they 
serviceable  when  it  is  desired  to  make  moulds  for  seals  and 
other  tilings  of  a  like  nature.  Should  the  relief  show  any 
marked  irregularity  of  surface  which  would  prevent  its 
impression  being  taken  clean  and  without  fracture,  then 
remedy  this  by  filling  the  cavities,  adding  the  same,  with 
due  consideration  to  the  original,  when  the  impression  has 
been  taken. 

Any  departure  from  a  plane  surface,  such  as  cylindrical 
or  other  forms,  must  necessarily  be  divided  into  as  many 
parts  as  will  admit  of  a  clean  separation  from  the  model, 
such  parts  to  be  afterwards  joined  together  for  casting. 
One  way  is  to  compress  the  clay  well  over  all  parts  of  the 
model  in  thickness  sufficient  to  make  a  good  firm  mould, 
which,  when  it  has  hardened  somewhat,  is  then  divided 
with  a  suitable  knife  at  such  parts  as  will  permit  the  sev- 
eral divisions  to  be  easily  withdrawn.  Before  lifting  them 
away  draw  lines  or  gutters  at  all  the  joints  so  that  the 
closing  together  may  be  facilitated.  After  lifting  away 
they  must  be  allowed  to  dry,  but  care  must  be  tnken  to 
keep  them  in  proper  shape.  If  proper  care  and  judgment 
is  used  in  choosing  the  places  for  dividing  the  mould, 
much  labor  may  be  saved  and  better  work  effected. 


THE  ART  OF  TAKING  CASTS.  285 

After  the  divisions  have  been  dried,  it  only  remains  to 
oil  the  surfaces  well,  and  place  them  together  again  in 
proper  order,  with  the  hole  upwards.  The  mould  is  then 
ready  for  the  plaster,  when  the  necessary  binding  together 
has  been  done.  It  is  not  necessary  to  make  these  objects 
solid;  if  weight  and  cost  of  plaster  is  an  object,  a  core  may 
be  inserted,  and  thus  reduce  the  thickness  as  desired. 
Statuettes,  figures,  busts,  etc.,  may,  in  similarly  prepared 
moulds,  be  cast  of  either  bronze,  zinc,  or  lead,  with  this  pro- 
viso, that  under  no  circumstances  must  this  be  attempted 
if  the  mould  be  not  absolutely  dry;  otherwise  the  steam, 
rapidly  generating,  will  cause  a  sudden  explosion,  which 
may  endanger  the  lives  of  those  near  by. 

TO    TAKE   A    CAST    IN    METAL    FROM    ANY   SMALL    ANIMAL, 
INSECT,   OR   VEGETABLE. 

After  a  box  sufficiently  capacious  to  hold  the  object  has 
been  provided,  and  well  oiled  in  the  inside,  the  animal 
must  be  suspended  by  a  string  or  strings  ;  the  several 
parts  of  the  animal  or  leaves  of  the  vegetable  must  be  ad- 
justed to  a  natural  position,  and  a  piece  of  wood,  of  suit- 
able dimension  to  form  a  gate  or  runner,  must  be  attached 
to  the  body  or  main  part  of  the  object,  and  at  all  the  ex- 
tremitk'S  wires  must  be  so  sot  as  that  a  clear  passage  for 
metal  or  air  may  be  secured  throughout  the  whole  mould. 
After  these  have  been  all  properly  secured  to  their  respec- 
tive places,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  plaster  and  brick-dust, 
in  the  proportions  before  explained,  must  be  prepared  and 
poured  within  in  such  manner  as  not  to  disturb  either  the 
object  to  be  cast  or  to  remove  any  of  the  connections. 
A  short  time,  suffices  for  setting  of  this  plaster,  when  the 
running  stick  and  wires  may  be  withdrawn  and  the  box 
taken  away,  after  which  the  mould  must  be  subjected  to  a 
moderate  heat  for  some  time,  gradually  increasing  the 


286  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

same  until  a  red  glow  is  obtained.  This  burns  the  object 
within  to  such  a  condition  as  to  make  the  operation  of 
cleaning  out  the  ashes  an  easy  matter.  The  passages  pro- 
vided for  runner  and  vents  serve  to  allow  of  blowing  a  cur- 
rent of  air  through  the  mould,  and  by  this  means  freeing 
it  of  every  vestige  of  the  article  placed  therein,  and  leaving 
behind  a  cavity  which,  when  filled  with  metal,  will  answer 
to  the  form  of  the  original.  Sometimes  it  is  somewhat 
tedious  to  extract  all  the  ashes,  and  much  shaking  and 
blowing  with  the  bellows  are  required  to  effect  a  thorough 
cleansing;  but  if  it  be  practicable  to  fill  the  mould  with 
quicksilver  the  operation  is  measurably  shortened,  as  the 
metal  curries  all  the  dust  before  it  as  it  passes  through  and 
out  at  the  runner  and  vents. 

When  the  cast  is  of  brass  or  copper,  have  the  mould  very 
hot,  but  a  cooler  mould  will  do  for  either  lead  or  tin.  Tap 
the  mould  gently  as  the  metal  is  poured,  and  allow  every- 
thing to  become  cold  before  extricating  the  casting,  which 
latter  operation  requires  great  care  when  there  are  parts  of 
more  than  ordinary  fineness  and  delicacy.  A  little  water 
will  help  to  soften  such  parts  of  the  mould  as  persist  in 
adhering  too  strongly. 

It  may  not  always  be  convenient  to  obtain  the  fine-pow- 
dered brick-dust  for  this  purpose,  in  which  case  Stour- 
bridge  clay,  well  washed  and  mixed  with  equal  parts  of  the 
finest  sand,  will  answer.  Pounded  pumice-stone  and  sand 
in  equal  parts,  to  the  same  proportion  of  plaster  of  Paris, 
make  very  good  moulds. 

TO   TAKE   A   CAST   Itf   PLASTER  FROM  A   PERSON'S   FACE. 

When  it  is  desired  to  take  a  cast  of  a  person's  face  the 
person  must  lie  down  on  his  back,  his  hair  being  previ- 
ously so  arranged  as  to  prevent  any  of  it  interfering  with 
the  operation.  A  paper  tube  is  then  inserted  into  each 


THE  ART  OF  TAKING   CASTS.  287 

nostril,  so  that  the  breathing  may  not  be  interfered  with. 
Sulad  or  some  other  pleasant  oil  must  be  applied  to  the  face 
to  make  the  separation  easy.  The  plaster  is  then  poured,  in 
small  quantities  at  a  time,  till  the  whole  face  has  been 
covered  to  the  required  thickness,  about  one-fourth  to  three- 
eights  of  an  inch  being  a  sufficient  quantity  if  the  operation 
is  smartly  performed.  But  a  short  time  is  required  for  the 
plaster  to  set,  and  it  may  be  removed  at  once  and  used  for 
a  mould  in  which  to  form  a  clay  head,  at  the  same  time 
rectifying  the  closed  eyes  and  otherwise  perfecting  the  clay 
model.  This  model  is  now  used  to  obtain  another  cast  in 
plaster  in  as  many  parts  as  are  necessary  to  effect  a  clean 
withdrawal,  which,  when  oiled  and  placed  together  again, 
form  the  final  mould  for  the  plaster  cast,  which  must  in 
evitably  be  a  fac-simile  of  the  person's  face. 

TO   TAKE   CASTS   FROM   MEDALS. 

Either  plaster  of  Paris  or  melted  sulphur  will  answer 
for  this  purpose.  First  oil  the  medal  with  a  brush  dipped 
in  olive-oil,  and  after  surrounding  the  medal  with  a  strip 
of  paper,  cut  to  the  depth  of  the  required  mould,  brush 
the  surface  of  the  medal  over  with  a  little  plaster  made  to 
the  consistence  of  cream,  and  then  fill  up  the  rest.  The 
idea  of  brushing  a  small  quantity  all  over  the  surface  before 
tilling  in  the  rest  is  to  make  sure  that  the  air  is  all  ex- 
pelled from  the  surface,  and  thus  prevent  bubbles  forming 
there.  After  it  has  set  hard,  remove,  and  allow  it  to  dry; 
a  fire  will  be  necessary  if  the  weather  is  cold  or  damp.  If 
the  object  operated  upon  after  this  manner  is  more  than 
ordinarily  large,  use  fine  plaster  on  the  surface,  and  a 
rougher  and  cheaper  kind  to  fill  in  with. 

If  hot  sulphur  is  poured  upon  silver  medals  they  will 
tarnish  very  badly. 

When  a  mould,  after  being  cast  as  above  described,  is  to 


288  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

be  used  for  a  sulphur  cast,  let  it  be  prepared  as  follows: 
Mix,  in  a  bottle,  one  ounce  of  oil  of  turpentine  with  one-half 
pint  of  boiled  linseed-oil.  After  well  shaking  this  mixture, 
subject  the  mould  to  repeated  dipping  until  it  has  absorbed 
all  the  oil  it  can  contain,  when,  if  it  is  kept  in  a  dry  place  for 
a  few  days,  its  surface  will  have  become  very  hard  and  fit 
to  cast  sulphur  thereon.  Whether  the  cast  be  sulphur  or 
plaster  which  is  taken  from  this  mould,  a  similar  process 
to  the  one  adopted  for  obtaining  the  mould  may  be  fol- 
lowed, not  neglecting  to  oil  the  mould,  excepting  that  in 
the  case  of  sulphur  a  ladle  will  be  required  for  melting. 

TO  TAKE   CASTS   WITH   ISINGLASS. 

Isinglass  dissolved  with  water  at  a  gentle  heat  is  all  that 
is  required  for  this  purpose.  The  solution  when  ready 
must  be  carefully  brushed  with  a  fine  brush  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  medal,  and  then  allowed  to  dry.  As  soon  as  it 
is  hard  it  may  be  raised  from  the  surface,  and  upon  exami- 
nation a  most  beautiful  impress  of  the  medal  will  be  found. 

Any  color  may  be  imparted  to  the  cast  by  adding  color- 
ing to  the  solution,  and  if  desired,  the  appearance  of  gold 
may  be  imparted  by  laying  a  little  gold-leaf  on  the  rough 
side. 

ELASTIC   MOULDS. 

Moulds  may  be  made  elastic  for  plaster  of  Paris  casts 
which  have  more  or  less  undercarving  of  the  model.  Take 
8  parts  glue,  4  parts  molasses,  mixed  and  boiled  together, 
and  to  this  add  1  part  of  boiled  linseed-oil  gradually 
stirred  in.  This  mixture  must  be  cast  over  the  model 
whilst  hot;  when  cold  it  may  be  easily  removed  and  pre- 
pared by  oiling  for  the  plaster  cast,  which  when  set  can  be 
removed  without  damage,  as  the  undercut  parts,  being 
elastic,  recover  their  original  position  again. 


PATTERN-MODELLING  IN  CLAY.  289 


PATTERN-MODELLING  IN  CLAY. 

THE  art  of  carving,  so  far  as  producing  patterns  for  the 
foundry  is  concerned,  is  fast  dying  out,  and  the  wood- 
carver's  place  is  being  taken  by  the  clay- modeller,  who  not 
only  produces  the  same  work  with  equal  accuracy  and 
distinctness,  but,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  case,  can 
produce  it  quicker  piece  for  piece,  as  well  as  duplicate  his 
work  to  an  extent  unlimited. 

No  matter  how  intricate  and  difficult  the  design  may  be, 
the  carver  must  of  necessity  work  out  the  whole  quantity 
needed  for  the  pattern  required,  making  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction assume  very  great  proportions  in  all  jobs  of  more 
than  ordinary  magnitude. 

With  the  modeller  it  is  very  different:  all  that  is  required, 
when  a  considerable  quantity  of  a  similar  design  is  to  be 
produced,  is  to  model  one  piece  of  convenient  length,  from 
which  *  piece'  any  quantity  may  be  cast  with  remarkable 
facility,  and  afterwards  joined  together. 

The  modeller,  like  the  carver,  is  not  to  be  clnssed  with 
the  regular  artificer  or  mechanic,  inasmuch  as  it  requires 
in  both  cases  more  or  less  of  inborn  genius,  making  it 
therefore  hardly  possible  for  any  one  to  attain  to  any  dis- 
tinction in  that  calling  unless  his  inclinations  tend  in  that 
direction  naturally;  this  being  the  case,  good  modellers  are 
few,  and  consequently  the  remuneration  for  their  work  is 
proportionately  high.  How  important  this  art  is  becoming 
to  the  manufacturer  can  be  readily  understood  when  we 
observe  that  in  almost  every  technical  school  throughout 
the  country  a  modelling  department  has  been  added. 

Plainly  speaking,  the  work  of  the  modeller,  in  this  in- 
stance, is  to  copy  the  drawings  made  by  the  designer,  pro- 


290  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

dncing  such  copy  iii  plastic  clay,  an  impression  of  which  is 
then  taken  in  plaster,  from  which  '  plaster  cast '  a  fac-simile 
iu  wax  is  produced. 

The  clay  used  for  modelling  is  specially  prepared  with 
the  view  of  retaining  its  plasticity  at  least  as  long  a  time  as 
the  model  requires  for  its  manipulation;  ordinarily,  dry 
clay  kneaded  with  glycerine  is  used,  but  for  extraordinary 
work,  that  requires  more  than  an  ordinary  length  of  time 
to  produce,  the  clay  is  made  from  the  following  ingredients: 
clay,  3;  sulphur,  0;  oxide  of  zinc,  1 ;  fatty  acids,  2;  fats,  10; 
first  saponify  the  zinc-white  with  oleic  acid,  which  then  mix 
with  the  other  fatty  acids;  add  sulphur  in  flowers  arid  the 
clay  in  a  dry  powder. 

The  mode  of  procedure,  after  the  clay  has  been  brought 
up  to  the  right  consistency,  is  to  lay  on  the  prepared  frame 
or  board  as  much  of  the  clay  as  will  be  sufficient  to  work 
out  the  design. 

If  the  work  required  be  simply  strips  of  moulding,  etc., 
to  be  set  in  certain  parts  of  the  pattern  already  made,  but 
lacking  such  moulding,  then  all  that  is  needed  is  to  nail 
strips  of  wood,  as  thick  and  as  wide  apart  as  the  moulding 
is  to  be,  on  a  suitable  board;  this  is  then  filled  in,  and  the 
design  modelled  thereon.  But  should  the  piece  be  of  a  more 
elaborate  nature,  such  as  a  piece  of  statuary  or  other  more 
difficult  design,  then  a  proper  frame  for  the  purpose  must 
be  made,  on  which  the  whole  of  the  design  is  to  be  worked 
out. 

The  modeller  works  the  clay  with  his  fingers  usually,  this 
being  considered  the  most  artistic  method,  although  it  is 
necessary  for  him  to  use  a  few  tools  of  bone  or  steel  in 
parts  where  without  them  it  would  be  impossible  for  him 
to  produce  a  sharp  or  elegant  finish. 

When  a  correct  model  has  been  made,  of  such  form  as 
will  admit  of  a  direct  withdrawal  from  the  sand,  it  is  simply 
oiled  all  over,  and  a  plaster  cast  taken  from  it;  the  cast  will, 


PATTERN-MODELLING  IN  CLAT.  291 

of  course,  be  a  correct  impression  of  the  model.  Over  this 
impression  strips  of  chiy,  rolled  out  to  the  desired  thick- 
ness, are  pressed  carefully,  so  as  to  obtain  an  equal  thick- 
ness all  over;  another  plaster  cast  is  then  taken  of  the 
back  or  rough  side.  These  together  form,  as  it  were,  top 
and  bottom  flasks,  and  before  separating  them  they  are  to 
be  pared  even  at  the  edges,  or,  what  perhaps  is  better,  de- 
pressions may  be  formed  in  the  lower  joint  before  taking 
the  upper  impression;  this  of  course  insures  a  perfect  fit 
of  the  two  parts. 

After  separating  the  parts,  the  clay  thickness  can  be 
taken  out,  gates  and  vents  cut,  mould  cleaned  and  oiled, 
and  again  closed  together  securely;  it  is  then  ready  to 
receive  the  molten  wax. 

In  the  case  of  models  which  will  not  admit  of  direct 
withdrawal,  as  before  mentioned,  the  impression  in  plaster 
must  be  obtained  by  dividing  the  surface  into  sections, 
prepared  in  such  manner  as  will  permit  of  easy  separation, 
or,  as  the  moulder  would  say.  ' drawbacks'  are  made;  and 
most  assuredly  this  part  of  the  business  does  tax  the  skill 
of  the  modeller,  as  he  cannot  possibly  accomplish  his  final 
cast  in  wax  until  he  has  moulded  his  model  in  plaster,  or, 
to  be  more  plain,  lie  must  produce  cope  and  core  in  plaster 
by  the  use  of  the  clay  thickness  before  he  can  produce  a 
fac-simile  in  wax  of  the  model  he  fashioned. 

It  may  be  here  said  that  the  marks  of  the  several  divi- 
sions which  the  modeller  must  make  serve  as  a  guide  to 
the  moulder  when  he  receives  his  pattern  to  work  from. 

It  will  be  observed,  also,  that  wherever  such  divisions 
must  take  place  that  will  be  the  place  to  cut  the  wax 
pattern  when  it  is  found  practicable  to  mould  the  same 
without  having  recourse  to  the  sectional  partings,  by  simply 
drawing  out  each  separate  part  in  the  direction  most  favor- 
able for  leaving  a  clean  impression.  To  run  a  wax  cast 
successfully,  it  is  important  that  the  fluid  wax  enter  the 


292  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

mould  at  as  many  places  as  will  assure  a  rapid  filling  of  the 
mould  as  well  as  force  out  all  the  confined  air;  otherwise 
the  work  will  be  scarred  and  blurred.  To  obviate  this  it  is 
best  to  force  the  molten  wax  in  at  the  lowest  point  of  the 
mould,  leaving  the  top  open  for  the  air  to  escape  through; 
but  as  this  would  be  impracticable  in  many  instances,  other 
means  must  be  adopted  for  the  aceomplishmeut  of  this 
end. 

The  mixture  for  this  wax  is  as  follows:  paraffin  wax,  26 
pounds;  beeswax,  13  pounds;  resin,  12  pounds;  li-nseed- 
oil,  4  pounds;  the  resin  and  oil  to  be  well  boiled  together 
before  adding  the  other  ingredients. 

Any  ordinary  boiler  with  a  faucet  at  the  bottom  for  with- 
drawing the  liquid  will  serve  the  purpose  of  melting,  and 
the  degree  of  liquidity  will  be  determined  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  piece  to  be  cast. 

After  casting  and  trimming  it  is  necessary  to  give  the 
patterns  a  thick  coat  of  bronze  varnish;  this,  of  course, 
destroys  all  tendency  to  sticking  in  the  sand.  It  is  also  im- 
portant that  one  of  the  plaster  sides  be  used  as  a  face-board 
on  which  to  ram  the  pattern  in  the  sand. 


TO  MOULD  A  SPIRAL  POST. 

POST-MOULDIXG  seldom  claims  much  attention,  such  work 
being  usually  considered  beneath  the  notice  of  moulders 
who  have  graduated  with  high  honors;  but  here  is  one,  I 
think,  which  demands  careful  examination  before  it  is 
passed  over  as  a  common  job. 

Fig.  183  represents  the  post,  which  is  seen  to  be  a  spiral 
figure  composed  of  two  strands  J"  diameter,  interlacing 
each  other  and  separated  by  the  distance  of  J".  The  total 
length  is  2  feet,  the  ends  being  solid  and  2"  diameter. 


TO  MOULD  A   SPIRAL  POST. 


293 


A 


294  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

If  the  reader  will  observe  Figs.  184  and  185,  he  will  at  once 
see  how  almost  impossible  it  would  be  to  make  this  job,  by 
using  loose  cheeks,  in  green  sand.  Fig.  184  shows  the  form 
of  the  joints  at  that  particular  place,  where  the  two  spirals 
set  parallel ;  and  Fig.  185  shows  the  altered  form  of  the  joints 
whan  the  pattern  is  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  We  will  as- 
sume the  ever-changing  form  of  the  joint  intermediate  to 
these  positions  shown,  and  decide  that,  however  careful 
we  might  be,  the  job,  if  made  in  green  sand,  would  be  at 
best  but  a  very  rough  one. 

It  is  my  purpose  here  to  show  how  best  and  cheapest  to 
obtain  a  set  of  core-boxes  from  which  good  cores  can  be 
made  and  joined  together  in  such  form  as  will,  by  the  use 
of  a  block  print  on  the  pattern,  as  shown  at  Fig.  186,  make 
the  job  a  very  simple  one. 

In  this  instance  the  block  prints  might  extend  beyond 
the  spirals  at  the  ends,  leaving  only  the  plain  ends  out; 
but,  as  will  be  seen  farther  on,  I  have  other  motives  for 
making  the  junction  as  shown,  and  do  not  desire  to  make 
other  drawings. 

Fig.  187  shows  section  of  a  wood  box,  the  inside  dimen- 
sions of  which  correspond  to  the  size  of  the  block  print  on 
pattern,  the  ends  being  made  to  receive  the  pattern  in  such 
position  as  will,  when  the  four  cores  are  joined,  make  a  per- 
fect fit  at  the  ends. 

The  first  process  is  to  fill  all  the  lower  part  of  the  box 
with  clay,  as  seen  at  A,  and  proceed  to  form  the  whole  joint 
along  the  pattern,  as  seen  at  B,  after  which  oil  over  the 
surface  and  fill  space  B  with  plaster. 

After  giving  due  time  for  the  plaster  to  set  hard,  the 
position  of  the  box  can  be  changed,  and  each  side  treated 
similarly,  when  you  will  have  four  plaster  casts  answering 
in  form  to  Figs.  184  and  185. 

It  only  remains  to  separate  the  four  parts,  and  take  a 
plaster  cast  of  each,  as  seen  at  Fig.  188,  and  the  core-boxes 


THE  "BERLIN"  FINE  CAST-IRON  WORK.       295 

are  made,  which  with  ordinary  care  will  produce  cores  as 
true  as  the  plaster  casts  from  which  they  were  made. 

The  pattern  when  made  must  be  separated  diagonally,  as 
shown  at  Fig.  189. 

Another  mode  of  moulding  such  a  job  is  to  have  the 
spirals  separate,  made  of  steel,  and  very  accurately  finished 
to  a  slight  taper.  Tight  iron  boxes,  the  outside  dimen- 
sions of  which  must  be  made  to  correspond  with  the  block 
print  A,  Fig.  186,  provided  with  adjustable  ends  through 
which  the  ends  of  the  spirals  must  protrude,  allow  for 
ramming  the  spirals  within  the  box  in  green  sand. 

Tho  patterns  can  then  be  twisted  out  endwise,  and  the 
ends  of  box  taken  off;  it  is  then  ready  for  the  mould,  which, 
as  in  the  other  case,  is  best  if  made  diagonally,  as  seen  at 
Fig.  189. 

The  latter  method  facilitates  production  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  but,  owing  to  cost  of  preparation,  is  not  to  be 
thought  of  unless  the  order  is  a  very  large  one. 


THE  "BEKLUT"  FINE  CAST-IKON  WOKK 

How  these  interesting  works  of  art  originated  calls  for 
more  than  ordinary  notice.  It  appears  that  during  the 
struggle  between  Prussia  and  France,  under  the  first,  Na- 
poleon, the  ladies  gave  up  their  jewels  to  the  government 
to  assist  in  resisting  Napoleon,  and  received  in  exchange 
similar  articles  made  of  cast  iron.  Some  of  these  iron 
ornaments  and  chains  are  remarkable  specimens  of  fine 
cast  work,  one  chain  4  ft.  10  in.  long,  having  180  links, 
weighing  no  more  than  1|  ounces.  Some  of  the  separate 
pieces  of  which  these  articles  are  made  up  are  so  small, 
that  it  is  said  there  are  nearly  10,000  in  a  pound  weight. 
Professor  Ehrenberg,  the  renowned  microscopist,  states  that 


296  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  iron  of  which  they  are  composed  is  made  from  a  bog-iron 
ore,  and  that  the  sand  is  a  kind  of  tripoli,  also  containing 
iron.  Both  are  composed  of  the  remains  of  animalcules. 


MALLEABLE-IRON  CASTINGS. 

THE   PROCESSES   OF   THEIR  MANUFACTURE   EXPLAINED,  IN- 
CLUDING   ANNEALING,   PRACTICAL    AND   THEORETICAL. 

THE  process  of  decarbonizing  cast  iron,  in  order  to  pro- 
duce malleability,  has  been  known  for  over  150  years.  It 
was  described  in  1722  by  Reaumur,  a  distinguished  French 
metallurgist  and  philosopher,  and  patents  for  its  applica- 
tion to  the  production  of  malleable-iron  castings  were 
granted  to  Samuel  Lucas,  of  Sheffield,  England,  in  1804, 
and  fifty  years  later  to  Brown  and  Lennox. 

Lucas,  in  his  specifications,  describes  it  as  a  method  of 
separating  the  impurities  from  crude  or  cast  iron  without 
fusing  or  melting  it,  and  of  rendering  the  same  malleable 
and  proper  for  several  purposes  for  which  forged  or  rolled 
iron  is  now  used;  and  also,  by  the  same  method,  of  im- 
proving articles  manufactured  of  cast  iron,  and  thereby 
rendering  crude  or  cast  iron  applicable  to  a  variety  of  new 
and  useful  purposes. 

All  this,  as  we  now  well  know,  was  accomplished  by 
simply  casting  such  articles  in  any  desired  shape,  and 
afterwards  making  them  malleable  by  extracting  the  carbon 
from  them. 

This  new  industry  rapidly  developed,  as  was  natural, 
seeing  that  so  many  articles  difficult  of  forging  could  be 
made  with  comparative  ease  this  way,  and  thus  reduce  the 
cost  of  production  immensely.  Foundries  specially  de- 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS.  297 

voted  to  the  production  of  this  line  of  work  multiplied  in 
all  directions,  and  every  effort  was  put  forth  to  establish 
the  business  on  a  sure  bnsis.  Success  attended  these  efforts 
to  a  marked  degree,  for  the  quality  of  the  work  done  was 
so  high  as  to  almost  defy  the  shrewdest  to  distinguish 
whether  the  products  were  malleable  or  only  malleable  cast 
iron. 

The  present  extent  of  the  business  may  in  some  measure 
be  estimated  from  the  fact  that,  in  addition  to  the  already 
large  plants  in  this  country,  there  is  now  in  course  of  erec- 
tion jit  West  Troy,  N.  Y.,  a  malleable-iron  foundry  to  cost 
$100,000.  The  main  foundry  is  to  be  75  X  427  feet,  with 
three  eils,  each  75  X  3?5  feet,  and  in  close  proximity  to 
the  main  building  is  the  annealing-room,  a  building  80  X 
450  feet. 

The  castings  produced  by  this  method  are  sometimes 
called  '  run  steel/  and  very  large  pieces,  such  as  gear-wheels, 
etc.,  are  often  cast  and  subsequently  decarbonized.  Screw- 
propellers  also  are  thus  produced,  in  combination  with  'case- 
hardening/  or  conversion  of  the  surface  metal  into  steel  by 
a  subsequent  process. 

Hydraulic  cylinders,  which  tinder  ordinary  circumstances 
would  require  to  be  cast  six  inches  thick,  are  by  this 
process  made  absolutely  safe  and  water-tight  at  about  half 
the  thickness. 

A  great  variety  of  articles  formerly  made  by  the  black- 
smith are  thus  produced  in  a  more  economical  and  correct 
manner  than  could  be  by  forging.  Bridle  bits,  parts  of 
blocks,  snuffers,  various  forms  of  builders'  and  domestic 
hardware,  some  kinds  of  culinary  and  other  vessels,  and 
numerous  other  things  are  thus  produced.  Man}'  of  these 
are  subsequently  case-hardened  and  polished. 

A  certain  amount  of  polish  maybe  imparted  to  mnlleable 
cast  iron  without  case-hardening,  but  the  lustre  is  by  no 
means  so  brilliant.  It  may  also  be  turned  in  the  lathe 


298  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

with  about  the  same  results  as  wrought  iron,  excepting 
that  the  tools  suffer  more  under  the  operation. 

The  specifi-j  gravity  of  malleable  cast  iron  is  a  trifle  less 
than  cast  iron. 

The  softness  and  flexibility  of  this  iron  is  remarkable, 
almost  approaching  wrought  iron,  yet  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  weld  it;  but  it  may  be  joined  together  by  fusion, 
or  brazed  to  steel  and  wrought  iron  by  the  aid  of  hard 
solder.  Another  of  its  characteristics,  peculiar  to  wrought 
iron  or  soft  steel,  is  that  thin  pieces  may  be  bent  double 
when  cold,  but  it  is  very  seldom  that  the  operation  can  be 
duplicated  by  bending  it  back  again  without  fracture. 

It  would  appear  as  if  malleable  cast  iron  was  the  inter- 
mediate state  between  gray  iron  and  steel,  possessing  a 
higher  tenacity,  with  increased  toughness,  than  the  former, 
but  differing  from  the  latter  in  having  a  lower  ductility, 
less  tenacity,  and  in  containing  graphitic  carbon. 

Malleable  cast  iron,  if  plunged  red-hot  into  water,  is 
hardened,  but  the  process  of  tempering  cannot  be  reliably 
performed,  as  in  steel.  At  a  moderate  -red  heat  it  is  pos- 
sible to  forge  some  of  the  best  qualities,  but  if  it  is  over- 
heated it  crumbles  away  as  soon  as  it  is  struck. 

Owing  to  the  non-removal  of  constituents  other  than 
carbon  by  this  process,  it  is  essential  that  a  fairly  pure  cast 
iron  be  employed  if  it  is  desired  to  obtain  a  good  malleable 
metal.  English  firms  prefer  the  various  brands  of  hematite, 
whilst  in  America  the  several  brands  of  unquestionably 
good  charcoal-iron  are  selected  from. 

The  mottled  irons  are  invariably  preferred  for  this 
purpose,  for  the  simple  reason  that  the  soft  gray  iron, 
whilst  it  may  be  best  for  ordinary  purposes,  on  account  of 
its  superior  fluidity,  is  totally  unfitted  for  this  work,  be- 
cause its  carbon,  being  wholly  or  almost  in  a  graphitic 
state,  leaves  the  castings  porous  and  weak  after  it  has  been 
abstracted  from  them  by  the  process  of  decarbonization  to 


299 


which  the^vw^ubjected.  The  white  ironj£'ty#ild  be  the 
best,  having  uSi^ifefl-  Carbon  in  t he  j^tfej^iememical  com- 
bination; but,  o^^goiuiif^^&J^^^^cientioned  con- 
dition, all  such  irons,  when  melted,  are  very  sluggish,  and 
consequently  unfit  for  pouring  into  the  moulds.  This 
accounts  for  preference  being  given  to  the  medium  or 
mottled  irons.  These  irons  are  sometimes  further  strength- 
ened by  the  addition  of  steel  or  wrought  scrap,  the  propor- 
tions of  which  alloys  cun  only  be  determined  by  close 
observation  and  constant  practice. 

From  the  above  general  observations  it  will  be  seen  that 
all  soft  gray  irons  are  totally  unfit  for  the  production  of 
malleable  cast  iron,  and  that  a  decided  preference  is  given 
to  mottled  charcoal  and  all  such  irons  as  have  been  smelted 
from  hematite  ores. 

Claude  Wylie,  in  his  instructive  work,  "  Iron  and  Steel 
Founding/'  says:  "  A  short  time  ago  we  visited  a  foundry 
in  England,  where  we  were  told  they  were  making  steel 
castings,  and  found  the  metal  used  to  be  old  and  burnt 
fire-bars,  of  which  they  had  an  unlimited  supply.  These 
fire-bars  were  melted  in  an  ordinary  quick-melting  cupola, 
the  castings  were  made  in  ordinary  green  sand,  and  after 
the  sand  was  removed  from  them  they  were  passed  into  an 
annealing  furnace  with  a  large  proportion  of  hematite  ore, 
and  there  brought  to  near  melting-heat — in  fact,  some  of 
the  boxes  we  noticed  had  a  portion  of  them  melted  off;  in 
three  days  they  were  ready  for  use.  The  old  fire-bars  re- 
melted  would  be  most  suitable  metal  for  the  purpose,  con- 
taining no  graphitic  carbon,  and  little  if  any  silicon.  The 
castings  we  saw  afterwards  were  all  that  could  be  desired 
as  malleable  cast;  they  bent  and  chipped  like  malleable 
iron,  but  could  not  be  welded." 

The  moulding  of  malleable-iron  castings  need  not  differ 
in  practice  materially  from  that  which  is  followed  in  the 
production  of  ordinary  cast-iron  work,  and  it  is  usual  to 


300  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

say  that  similar  methods  are  followed.  Whilst  this  state- 
ment may  be  true  partially,  it  is  very  evident  that  their 
practice  is  on  the  whole  much  superior  to  anything  we  see 
ordinarily  in  our  best  iron-foundries.  A  most  complete 
S3*stem  of  match-plates,  in  conjunction  with  the  almost 
faultless  precision  of  the  moulding-machines  lately  invented, 
conspire  to  make  the  moulding  of  malleable-iron  castings 
a  more  accurate  and  reliable  system  than  is  dreamed  of  by 
those  unacquainted  with  their  methods. 

Proprietors  of  iron  foundries  all  over  the  country  are 
becoming  keenly  alive  to  their  own  shortcomings  in  this 
particular,  and  are  even  now  hastening  to  copy  the  methods 
so  successfully  inaugurated  by  their  fellow-craftsmen  in  the 
malleable  shops. 

On  account  of  the  lesser  fluidity  of  the  iron  used  for 
malleable-iron  castings,  it  is  usual  to  cut  larger  running- 
gates  into  the  moulds,  but  care  is  taken  in  selecting  the 
best  place  for  such  gates,  so  that  there  will  be  no  fracture 
caused  should  it  be  forcibly  torn  off  by  the  extra  contrac- 
tion and  brittleness  of  the  iron  used — a  very  common 
occurrence. 

Very  much  of  the  common  class  of  work  is  cast  from  an 
ordinary  cupola  after  the  regular  manner,  and  not  a  little 
is  melted  in  clay  crucibles  with  a  natural  draught  at  the 
small  places,  but  the.reverberatory  furnace  is  no  doubt  the 
most  suitable  means  of  supplying  the  right  quality  of  metal 
for  malleable-iron  castings.  The  iron,  when  melted  in 
reverberatory  furnaces,  escapes  immediate  contact  with  the 
fuel,  and  consequently  does  not  absorb  any  of  its  impuri- 
ties; and,  furthermore,  any  excess  of  carbon  in  the  iron 
charged  will  be  considerably  lessened  by  the  oxidizing 
action  of  the  flame  during  the  process  of  melting. 

For  heavy  crucible-melting  in  England,  it  is  common  to 
use  a  Siemens  regenerative  furnace,  any  degree  of  heat 
desirable  being  more  certainly  obtained  at  a  much  less  cost 


MALLEABLE  IRON  CASTINGS.  301 

for  fuel  than  is  possible  by  the  old  methods.  The  peculiar 
feature  of  this  furnace  is  that  the  waste  heat  is  employed 
to  heat  up  both  the  gaseous  fuel  and  the  air  requisite  to 
burn  it,  before  they  are  introduced  into  the  chamber  in 
which  they  undergo  combustion. 

An  explanation  of  the  theory  of  malleable  cast  iron  is 
given  by  Alder  Wright,  in  Ency.  Brit,  who  says:  "In 
order  to  carry  out  the  conversion  of  cast  iron  into  malleable 
cast  iron  in  this  way,  the  articles  to  be  treated  are  packed 
in  cast-  or  wrought- iron  chests  in  oxide  powder;  the  chests 
are  then  stacked,  one  above  another,  in  a  kind  of  rever- 
beratory  furnace,  and  gradually  heated  up  to  a  red  heat, 
which  is  maintained  for  the  requisite  time,  after  which 
they  are  annealed  by  slow  cooling.  With  charcoal  pig 
pretty  free  from  silicon,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  and  with 
fuel  in  the  furnace  free  from  any  large  quantity  of  sulphur, 
a  soft,  but  tough,  tenacious,  and  readily  malleable,  skin  is 
produced;  if,  however,  the  heating  is  continued  for  some 
time  after  the  whole  of  the  carbon  originally  present  has 
been  removed,  the  articles  become  brittle,  owing  to  the 
formation  of  the  oxide  of  iron  disseminated  through  the 
mass,  just  as  copper,  bronze,  and  analogous  substances  are 
rendered  brittle  through  a  similar  cause. 

"  This  circumstance,  together  with  the  known  character 
of  the  chemical  actions  of  carbon  dioxide  on  iron  and 
carbon  at  a  red  heat,  indicates  the  nature  of  the  processes 
taking  place  during  the  decarbonization.  The  ferric  oxide, 
and  the  heated  air  in  contact  with  it,  first  oxidize  the  car 
bon  in  the  outermost  film  to  carbon  dioxide;  this  then 
passes  inwards  by  the  process  of  'occlusion'  (gradual 
solution  of  gases  in  solids),  and  reacts  upon  the  carbon  of 
the  next  layers,  in  accordance  with  the  equation 

CO,  +  C  =  SCO, 
the  carbon  dioxide  thus  formed  first  becoming  dissolved  in 


302  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  iron,  and  subsequently,  when  the  iron  is  saturated 
therewith,  gradually  diffusing  outwards,  becoming  con- 
verted into  carbon  dioxide  as  soon  as  it  comes  in  contact 
with  either  the  ferric  oxide  of  the  packing,  or  the  partially 
oxidized  iron  of  the  outer  film,  which,  when  free  from 
carbon,  reacts  on  the  carbon  dioxide  thus: 

yC08  +  xFe  =  FecOy  +  yCO. 

"In  the  outermost  layers,  accordingly,  there  is  always  a 
tendency  to  the  formation  of  iron  oxide  in  virtue  of  this  re- 
action, and  simultaneously  a  tendency  to  the  reduction  of 
this  oxide  by  the  agency  of  the  carbon  oxide  which  is  being 
formed  in  the  interior  layers  and  travelling  outward;  as 
long  as  this  latter  action  keeps  the  former  in  check,  the  ac- 
cumulation of  iron  oxide  in  the  outer  layers  does  not  take 
place  to  such  an  extent  as  to  deteriorate  materially  the  te- 
nacity of  the  malleable-iron  skin,  but  when  the  carbon  of  the 
core  has  been  so  completely  removed  that  the  supply  of  car- 
bon oxide  from  the  interior  almost  ceases,  the  formation  and 
accumulation  of  iron  oxide  in  the  outer  layers  goes  on, 
rendering  them  more  or  less  brittle.  In  the  inner  layers 
the  removal  of  carbon  by  the  penetration  of  the  dissolved 
carbon  dioxide,  and  its  reaction  on  the  carbon,  is  continu- 
ally progressing,  the  decarbonization  gradually  creeping  in- 
wards, as  it  were,  until  finally  the  innermost  central  parts 
become  decarbonized  also.  The  non-removal  of  sulphur, 
silicon,  and  phosphorus  during  the  process  is  due  simply 
to  the  fact  that  these  elements  are  not  acted  upon  by  the 
occluded  carbon  dioxide  as  the  carbon  is,  and  consequently, 
not  being  oxidized,  cannot  be  eliminated.  The  iron  oxide 
used  becomes  partially  reduced  during  the  operation;  in 
order  to  make  it  fit  for  use  over  again,  it  is  moistened  with 
a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac,  and  exposed  to  the  air  in  order 
to  rust,  and  so  reoxidize  it. 

"  The  whole  process  is  in  effect  an  exact  inversion  of  the 


MALLEABLE-IRON  CASTINGS.  303 

chemical  changes  taking  place  during  the  manufacture  of 
blister  steel  from  malleable  iron  by  the  process  of  cementa- 
tion, and  differs  from  the  ordinary  puddling  method  for 
the  purification  of  cast  iron  in  this  salient  respect,  that  in 
the  latter  case  the  formation  of  the  oxide  of  iron  by  the 
effect  of  heated  air,  and  its  direct  addition  in  the  form  of 
'  fettling,'  give  rise  to  the  production  of  a  fluxed  mass,  in 
which  is  incorporated  a  notably  larger  amount  of  oxide  of 
iron,  which  reacts  on  the  carbon,  sulphur,  silicon,  and  phos- 
phorus, oxidizing  them  and  converting  them  into  products 
which  are  either  gaseous,  and  escape  (carbon  and  sulphur 
dioxides),  or  are  non-metallic,  and  fusible,  and  hence  sepa- 
rate from  the  iron  as  a  fused  slag  or  cinder." 

Annealing  or  cementing  furnaces  are  simply  furnaces  in 
which  an  article  is  packed  in  the  powder  of  another  sub- 
stance, and  therewith  subjected  to  a  continued  heat  below 
the  fusing-point.  The  article  is  changed  by  a  chemical  re- 
action with  the  powder. 

Bar-iron  packed  in  charcoal  and  heated  in  a  cementing- 
furnace  becomes  steel,  the  iron  absorbing  some  of  the  Car- 
bon from  the  charcoal. 

Cast  iron,  packed  in  powdered  hematite  or  smithy  scales, 
and  similarly  heated,  becomes  malleable,  the  oxygen  of  the 
hematite  or  scales  absorbing  some  of  the  carbon  in  the 
iron. 

With  some  few  slight  modifications,  the  cementing-fur- 
nace  for  producing  blistered  steel  will  answer  the  purpose 
of  annealing  or  decarbonizing  cast  iron.  Some  of  the  late 
improvements  in  this  country  provide  for  the  flarne  passing 
all  round  the  chamber  without  coining  into  actual  contact 
with  the  boxes  containing  the  castings  to  be  annealed. 
Access  to  this  chamber  is  obtained  at  one  end,  where  the 
boxes  can  be  inserted  or  withdrawn  at  any  time  without  in- 
terfering with  the  continuous  working  of  the  furnace.  The 
saving  in  fuel,  as  well  as  to  the  furnace,  will  be  greatly  ap- 


304  THE  IRON' FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

predated,  as  it  allows  of  almost  uninterrupted  working,  the 
consequence  of  which  is  that  the  expenses  for  repairs,  inci- 
dent to  a  periodic  stoppage,  are  avoided. 

The  Siemens  regenerative  gas-furimce  is  much  used  in 
England,  for  the  annealing-furnace  as  well  as  for  melting 
with.  As  arranged  for  this  purpose,  the  furnace  lias  four 
longitudinal  main  flues,  divided  by  partitions  into  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  flues;  the  two  exterior  flues  receive  the 
heated  gas,  and  the  two  interior  ones  the  hot  air.  Over 
these  is  a  closed  arched  muffle  in  which  the  annealing- 
boxes  are  placed.  The  hot  gas  and  the  hot  air,  being 
kindled,  pass  beneath  at  the  sides  and  over  the  top  of  the 
arch  of  the  muffle  The  furnace  is  never  permitted  to 
cool  entirely,  the  boxes  being  allowed  to  cool  on  the  floor. 

It  is  necessary  that  all  castings,  previous  to  being  placed 
in  the  annealing-boxes,  should  be  freed  from  every  particle 
of  sand;  this  is  done  either  by  abrasion  in  the  tumbling- 
barrel,  scrubbing  with  wire  brushes,  or  pickling  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid.  If  the  latter  method  is  adopted,  the  cast- 
ings should  be  thoroughly  washed  and  dried  before  being 
placed  in  the  annealing-boxes. 

The  annealing-boxes,  sometimes  called  saggers,  are 
usually  made  of  cast  iron,  the  same  nature  as  the  castings 
to  be  annealed  therein.  For  ordinary  purposes  they  are 
about  13  inches  in  depth  and  width  and  about  1C  inches 
long,  and  if  carefully  used  they  will  last  from  15  to  20  heats. 
For  heavier  and  larger  pieces  special  boxes  are  made  to 
suit  the  requirements,  wrought  iron  sometimes  being  used 
for  the  purpose,  but  these  latter  warp  and  twist  out  of 
shape  in  a  very  short  time. 

The  articles  when  cleaned  are,  in  some  places,  imbedded 
within  the  annealing-boxes  in  powdered  iron  oxide,  viz.,  a 
pure  red  hematite  ore,  as  free  as  possible  from  all  earthy 
matter;  at  other  places  smithy  and  rolling-mill  scales  or 
some  analogous  substance  is  used;  they  are  then  kept  at  a 


MALLEABLE-IRON  CASTINGS.  305 

red  heat  in  the  annealing-furnace  for  as  long  a  time  as  re- 
quired, when  a  diminution  is  produced  in  the  amount  of 
carbon  contained,  so  that  the  cast  iron  becomes  more  01* 
less  converted  into  soft  iron. 

When  the  action  is  pushed  to  the  extreme,  all  or  almost 
all  of  the  carbon  is  removed,  that  in  the  outer  layers  dis- 
appearing first.  Should  the  heating  not  be  continued  long 
enough  to  remove  all  the  carbon,  that  which  remains  is 
found  in  the  innermost  layers,  which  constitute  a  core  of 
more  or  less  decarbonized  cast  iron  with  an  outer  skin 
of  malleable  iron. 

The  powdered  iron  ore  mentioned  above  is  sometimes 
objectionable,  on  account  of  the  earthy  matter  which  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  it,  more  or  less  ;  this  latter  when 
present  in  too  great  quantity  is  fused  by  the  intense  heat  of 
the  furnace,  and  adheres  to  the  castings  in  the  form  of 
scoria  ;  this  not  only  interferes  with  the  decarbonizing 
of  the  casting,  but  requires  to  be  scrubbed  off  by  a  second 
hard  application  of  the  tumbling-barrel,  or  some  other 
means  equally  efficacious. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  scales  are  entirely  free  from  such 
impurities,  and  do  not  interfere  with  the  legitimate  opera- 
tions of  annealing.  As  before  noticed,  the  scales  lose  some 
of  their  oxidizing  properties  at  every  heat,  but  that  is 
effectively  renewed  by  the  application  of  dilute  sal-ammo- 
niac, and  allowing  them  to  rust  again.  By  this  means  they 
can  be  used  over  and  over  again  along  with  the  new,  which 
is  added  to  make  good  the  waste.  When  the  ore  is  used  it 
is  previously  ground  and  sifted  ;  what  passes  through  an 
i-inch  sieve  is  rejected,  as  it  contains  too  much  earthy 
matter. 

Packing  the  boxes  is  an  important  part  of  the  annealing 
process.  A  quantity  of  the  ore  or  scales  is  first  placed  on 
the  bottom,  on  which,  separate  from  ench  other,  the  first 
layer  of  castings  is  placed;  these  are  then  covered  to  a 


306  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

depth  of  |  inch  with  the  ore  or  scales,  on  which  the  second 
layer  of  castings  is  placed,  separate  as  before,  and  the 
•operation  continued  until  the  box  is  nearly  full,  wlien  the 
lid  is  carefully  set  in,  resting  on  a  final  layer  of  the  ore  or 
scales;  the  covers  are  carefully  luted,  to  prevent  the  ad- 
mission of  air.  The  boxes  are  usually  inserted  into  the 
oven  in  pairs. 

Long  practice  on  the  part  of  the  furnaceman  qualifies 
him  for  judging  how  long  a  time  each  kind  of  casting  re- 
quires for  complete  decarbonization;  the  heaviest  are 
assigned  to  the  hottest  parts  of  the  furnace,  marked  in 
such  manner  as  will  enable  him  to  give  to  each  class  a 
period  of  heat  proportionate  to  their  bulk.  For  these  rea- 
sons it  is  customary  to  place  the  castings  in  each  box  as 
near  alike  in  bulk  as  possible. 

The  oxide  which  forms  on  the  castings  during  the  pro- 
cess of  decarbonizing  is  a  reliable  indicator  of  the  quality 
or  degree  of  malleability  obtained,  the  operator  being  able 
to  judge  of  this  according  to  the  hues  presented. 

No  matter  how  clean  the  scales  may  have  been,  all  cast- 
ings after  being  taken  from  the  furnace  require  more  or 
less  cleaning  to  make  them  at  all  presentable. 

The  capacity  of  annealing-furnaces  varies  somewhat,  but 
they  usually  treat  from  650  to  1200  pounds  at  one  heat. 
The  length  of  time  required  is  from  two  days  to  two  weeks, 
according  to  bulk;  but,  as  explained  at  another  place,  they 
must  not  be  kept  at  too  high  a  temperature,  nor  remain 
too  long,  or  the  result  will  be  opposite  to  what  is  desired — 
the  castings  will  be  hard  instead  of  soft.  Usually  the  heat 
is  gradually  slackened  for  about  15  hours  before  taking  out 
the  boxes,  and  the  latter  are  allowed  to  become  cold  before 
taking  out  the  castings. 


CHILLED   CAR-WHEELS.  307 


CHILLED  CAR- WHEELS. 

FULL  INSTRUCTIONS  FOE  PATTERN,  MOULDING-FLASKS, 
CORES,  CHILLS,  METAL  MIXING,  CASTING,  ANNEALING, 
TESTING,  WITH  AN  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  THEORY  OF 
CHILLING  CASTINGS. 

AMERICAN  car-wheels  are  generally  made  of  chilled  cast 
iron.  Some  wheels  are  cast  with  spokes,  and  others,  for 
light  purposes,  are  made  with  a  single  plate  betwixt  the 
hub  and  the  rim;  but  the  '  Washburn  wheel/  which  has  an 
arch  at  the  central  portion,  adjacent  to  the  hub,  the  apex 
of  which  is  connected  by  a  curved  web  to  the  rim,  us  shown 
at  Fig.  190,  is  the  one  most  generally  manufactured  in  this 
country,  the  large  number  of  extensive  plants  engaged  in 
their  production  giving  ample  testimony  to  their  popu- 
larity. 

These  wheels  are  subjected  to  very  hard  usage,  and  must 
naturally  sustain  shocks  and  strains  of  an  extraordinary 
nature;  consequently  none  but  the  very  best  brands  of  soft 
strong  iron  are  used  in  casting  them.  Moreover,  these 
.irons  must  possess  the  quality  of  taking  a  ' chill '  readily, 
the  depth  of  which  may  vary  from  £"  to  1",  according  to 
the  mixture.  The  proportioning  of  these  several  brands 
of  iron  to  obtain  the  requisite  strength  and  depth  of  chill 
is  unquestionably  the  most  important  operation  in  their 
manufacture. 

The  part  of  the  wheel  to  be  chilled  is,  of  course,  the 
outer  circumference,  or  'tread/  including  the  flange.  This 
surface,  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch  or  more,  is  by  the 
process  of 'chilling' converted  into  white  iron  of  a  hard, 
crystalline,  but  brittle  nature;  almost  like  steel  physically 
and  chemically,  excepting  that  it  cannot  be  tempered. 


308 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


When  the  rims  of  these  wheels  are  broken  the  fracture 
should  show  a  bright  steel  color  at  the  chilled  part,  gradu- 
ally diminishing  in  hardness  towards  the  body  of  the  wheel, 
where  it  should  be  soft  and  tough.  In  the  following  brief 
review  of  their  manufacture  we  shall  confine  ourselves  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  practical  side  of  the  subject.  Be- 
ginning with  the  pattern,  and  following  the  casting  through 


Fig.  190. 

all  the  various  processes,  including  annealing,  we  shall 
discover  how  much  work,  mental  and  physical,  there  is 
expended  in  the  making  of  a  chilled  car-wheel. 


PATTERN. 

A  true  and  well-made  pattern  is  a  chief  desideratum  in 
the  manufacture  of  chilled  wheels,  for  not  only  is  it  possible 
that  chill  cracks,  which  are  manifestly  more  frequent  when 
some  particular  pattern  is  used,  but  also  other  defects  which 
a  crucial  series  of  tests  prior  to  a  final  delivery  reveals,  may 


CHILLED  CAR-WHEELS. 


309 


most  assuredly  have  their  origin  in  a  faultily  balanced  and 
unevenly  thicknessed  pattern. 

Knowing  that  a  wheel  pattern  cannot  escape  more  or  less 
rough  treatment  in  the  foundry,  it  is  only  common-sense 
and  wise  on  the  part  of  the  pattern-maker  to  make  nil  ex- 
posed parts  of  his  pattern  out  of  hard  wood.  Some  places 
prefer  to  turn  up  an  iron  pattern  for  this  class  of  work. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  make  the  chamber  core-boxes 
of  iron,  after  the  manner  shown  at  Fig.  191,  in  which 


Fig.  191. 

boxes  the  cores  remain  until  they  are  dry.  The  operation 
of  making  the  core  is  plainly  shown;  the  lower  side  A,  A, 
with  prints  for  vents  /?,  being  made  in  the  core-box  itself, 
while  the  upper  side  C  is  formed  by  the  sweep  D,  which, 
as  seen,  is  made  to  travel  around  the  top,  guided  by  the 
centre-pin  E,  and  form  the  upper  side  of  the  core. 

Ordinarily  this  completes  the  making  of  this  cor-3  until 
it  hns  been  dried;  but  if  the  method  suggested  be  adopted, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  place  a  template  with  three  evenly 
divided  holes  over  the  core  when  it  has  been  swept  off,  by 


310  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

the  aid  of  which  a  small  iron  bearing  can  be  pressed  into  the 
coro  level  with  the  surface,  and  directly  under  each  chaplet's 
place  in  the  cope,  as  seen  at  A,  Fig.  192.  The  object  of  this 
is  that  a  short-shouldered  stud  J"  diameter  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  heavier  one  usually  employed  for  that  pur- 
pose. 

Even  the  centre  core,  simple  as  it  may  seem,  is  worthy  of 
more  than  ordinary 'attention  in  this  case.  Nothing  should 
be  left  to  chance,  as  we  may  rely  upon  it  that  a  flattened 
core  placed  out  of  truth  will  naturally  interfere  with  that 
equality  of  cooling  so  essential  to  success  in  this  work.  To 
avoid  this  it  is  advisable  to  use  iron  core-boxes  that  will 
give  a  perfectly  true  core  every  time. 


MOULDING,   FLASKS,   CORES. 

The  whole  operation  of  moulding  a  chilled  wheel  is 
clearly  shown -at  Fig.  192,  which  is  a  representation  of  the 
entire  mould  when  closed  and  ready  for  casting. 

It  is  usual  to  hold  all  the  parts  together  by  clamps  or 
bolts,  at  the  lugs  provided  for  the  purpose  (those  for  cope 
and  chill  are  to  be  seen  in  the  figure),  having  separate  ones 
for  pinning  the  nowel  and  chill  together;  the  cope,  not 
requiring  pins,  necessarily  being  bolted  fast  to  the  chill 
when  it  is  placed  thereon  for  ramming. 

This  figure  shows  the  application  of  strong  pins  and 
keys  A,  A  for  all  the  parts,  thus  obviating  the  annoyance 
consequent  on  the  use  of  either  of  the  former-mentioned 
methods;  a  few  keys  being  in  every  sense  an  effective 
substitute,  and  requiring  only  a  blow  from  the  hammer  to 
either  fasten  or  loosen  them. 

The  plan  view  in  this  figure  explains  at  once  the  class  of 
cope  in  general  use,  and  gives  the  position  of  all  Ings  as 
well  as  that  of  the  swivels,  or  trunnions  B,  B,  which  are 
cast  on  the  chill  only. 


CHILLED   CAR-WHEELS. 


311 


Fig.  192. 


312  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

The  perforated  bottom  plate  C,  C  is  represented  as 
strengthened  by  an  outer  ring  D,  D  and  an  inner  one  E, 
E,  which  are  connected  by  cross-ribs;  this  plate  may  be 
pinned  and  keyed  after  the  manner  shown  for  cope  and 
chill.  The  only  way  to  make  this  method  of  pinning  abso- 
lutely effective  in  any  case  is  to  have  all  lugs  made  extra 
strong  and  large,  to  make  the  pins  as  short  as  possible,  and 
in  this  particular  instance  the  latter  should  be  not  less 
than  1"  diameter  at  the  thread  and  \\"  above  the  shoulder 
at  F,  F. 

However  true  the  pattern  may  have  been  made,  it  will 
avail  but  very  little  in  producing  a  true  casting  if  care 
is  not  exercised  in  ramming  up  the  mould.  This  operation 
must  of  necessity  be  intelligently  performed,  and  all  good 
wheel-moulders  are  cognizant  of  the  fact  that  hard,  even 
ramming  is  the  only  way  to  success  in  this  work.  The 
sand  chosen  for  the  bottom  of  the  mould  should  be  of  a 
very  open  nature,  and  used  not  over  moist.  That  for  the 
cope  may  be  selected  with  a  view  to  having  good  adhesive 
qualities  in  combination  with  those  mentioned  above,  as 
every  effort  is  made  to  make  the  sand  hang  in  the  cope 
without  the  aid  of  lifters  or  nails,  if  possible. 

The  best  efforts  of  leading  proprietors  have  been  con- 
stantly directed  towards  improving  their  methods  of 
moulding  chilled  wheels,  until  now,  by  the  adoption  of  the 
pneumatic  system,  it  has  been  made  all  but  perfect;  the 
latter  power  is  manageable  to  a  remarkable  extent,  moving 
either  fast  or  slow,  as  it  may  be  desired.  This  is  produc- 
tive of  an  increased  output  with  a  diminished  expenditure 
of  labor,  thus  making  it  advantageous  to  employer  and 
employe,  as  the  latter  usually  works  by  the  piece. 

The  operations  of  moulding  are,  first,  to  place  the  cope 
on  its  back  with  the  chill  attached,  into  which  the  pattern 
is  then  placed,  and  the  nowel  pinned  on  and  rammed,  to 
be  afterwards  vented.  The  bottom  plate  is  then  made 


CHILLED   CAR-WHEELS.  313 

fast  to  the  nowel,  and  the  whole  turned  over  by  means  of  a 
double  sling  made  to  fit  the  swivels  on  the  chill,  and  bowed 
sufficient  to  allow  the  entire  set  of  flasks  to  turn  over  clear 
of  everything. 

When  over,  and  resting  level  on  the-  floor,  the  cope  is 
rammed  and  vented,  and  the  pou  ring-on  sin  J  formed,  aftor 
which  the  chill  is  lifted  off  and  reversed.  This  brings  the 
cope  along  with  it.  exposing  the  impression  of  the  top  or 
cope  side,  the  impression  of  the  lower  or  nowel  side  being 
seen  when  the  pattern  is  lifted  out.  There  remains  little 
to  be  done  now  except  finish  and  blacken  these  two  parts, 
and  place  the  chamber  and  centre  cores  in  their  respective 
places;  the  cope  can  then  be  again  reversed  and  closed  over 
after  the  studs  A  have  been  inserted,  as  shown. 

These  studs  form  a  handy  and  effective  means  of  holding 
down  the  chamber  core,  and  require  no  attention  after  the 
mould  is  closed.  The  vents  from  the  cores  are  taken  away 
at  the  bottom,  plate  after  the  manner  shown  at  G  and  H. 

CHILLS. 

With  very  few  exceptions,  chills  are  invariably  made  of 
cast  iron. 

How  deep  the  chill  may  be  formed  in  castings  cannot 
safely  be  determined  by  any  other  means  than  actual  pre- 
vious test  of  the  mixtures  to  be  used. 

The  depth  of  chill  in  a  casting  is  to  some  extent  depend- 
ent on  the  bulk  of  metal  contained  in  the  chill. 

The  smallest  possible  thickness  of  chill  necessary  to  pro- 
duce a  desirable  chill  on  car-wheels  when  the  mixture  is  in 
every  sense  favorable  is  about  the  same  as  the  thickness  of 
the  rim  to  be  chilled ;  but  on  account  of  the  hard  usage  to 
which  they  are  subjected  it  is  usual  to  make  them  much 
heavier.  Still,  this  increased  thickness  produces  very  little 
increase  in  the  depth  of  chill  obtained  by  the  thinner  ones. 


314  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

The  chill  reduces  the  temperature  of  the  metal  with 
which  it  comes  into  immediate  contact  almost  instantly; 
but  if  the  casting  is  of  very  heavy  proportions,  the  chill 
should  he  made  thick  enough  to  effectively  absorb  whatever 
heat  must  subsequently  pass  from  the  casting  outwards, 
and  thus  prevent  the  already  chilled  surface  from  being 
remelted. 

Metal  for  chills  should  be  of  the  same  nature  as  that 
used  for  the  castings  which  are  to  be  cast  therein,  viz.,  extra 
strong  and  fine-grained.  All  irons  of  a  highly  graphitic 
nature  should  be  discarded  on  account  of  their  openness  of 
grain. 

The  chances  for  chill  cracks  will  be  materially  lessened  by 
having  the  flasks  level  for  pouring;  likewise,  if  the  iron  is 
allowed  to  cool  before  running  it  into  the  mould  to  as  low 
a  degree  as  will  just  run  a  smooth  surface  on  the  chill  with- 
out seaming,  there  will  be  less  danger  of  the  above  unpleas- 
ant experience. 

It  is  claimed  by  some  that  a  deeper  chill  results  from 
having  the  chill  made  hot;  whether  this  be  so  or  not,  it  is 
always  preferable  to  have  them  at  least  warm  enough  to 
prevent  any  moisture  from  settling  upon  them. 

Chills  for  car-wheels  should  be  bored  out,  and  well 
polished  to  a  very  smooth  surface,  after  which  the  surface 
is  to  be  slightly  rusted  by  the  application  of  some  dilute 
acid.  This  rust  is  to  be  afterwards  rubbed  off,  and  the 
surface  touched  over  with  a  thick  paste  composed  of  black- 
lead  and  oil  before  casting.  There  must  be  none  of  the 
paste  left  on  the  chill;  the  idea  is  to  rub  the  lead  well  into 
the  pores  of  the  metal,  and  thus  prevent  the  molten  iron 
from  finding  a  lodgment  there. 

When  not  in  use,  place  all  chills  in  a  dry  place,  and 
cover  the  polished  surface  well  with  grease,  taking  care  to 
clean  well  when  they  are  again  brought  into  use. 


CHILLED   OAll-WHEELS.  315 


THEORY   OF   CHILLING   CASTINGS. 

The  chill  acts  upon  the  surface  of  the  molten  iron  by 
rapidly  absorbing  the  heat  at  the  point  of  contact.  This 
brings  about  rapid  cooling,  and  cast  iron  is  hardened  by 
rapid  cooling,  as  may  be  satisfactorily  proved  by  casting 
four  plates,  equal  in  area,  but  of  different  thicknesses,  from 
the  same  ladle  of  iron.  The  one  at  I"  thick  will  be  gray 
and  soft;  the  one  at  £"  thick  will  be  perceptibly  harder 
and  more  dense;  the  one  at  J"  thick  will  be  still  harder, 
with  evidences  of  mottle  in  parts;  and  the  one  at  £"  thick 
may  be  absolutely  white,  plainly  showing  that  the  change 
from  gray  to  white  has  been  effected  by  the  difference  in 
the  rates  of  cooling. 

How  this  change  occurs  is  explained  thus:  It  is  supposed 
that  whilst  cast  iron  is  in  a  molten  state  all  its  carbon 
is  held  in  combination,  and  that  when  this  carbon  amounts 
to  some  2|  or  upwards  per  cent  of  the  iron,  and  especially 
when  the  fused  substance  is  rapidly  cooled,  the  metal 
solidifies  in  an  almost  homogeneous  mass,  possessing  some- 
what different  properties  from  those  of  good  steel;  we  then 
term  it  white  iron,  on  account  of  its  color  and  fracture. 
Under  other  conditions,  especially  when  a  longer  time  is 
allowed  for  solidification,  a  more  or  less  complete  separation 
of  graphite,  and  consequent  production  of  a  cross-grained 
crystalline  structure,  results,  the  product  being  then  termed 
gray  cast  iron. 

The  question  as  to  whether  the  carbon  which  does  not 
separate  in  the  graphitoidal  state  on  cooling  is  combined  or 
not,  is  one  about  which  great  divergence  of  opinion  exists. 
However,  it  is  a  well-established  fact  that  by  melting  and 
very  rapidly  chilling  certain  kinds  of  gray  cast  iron  they 
are  more  or  less  converted  into  white  or  indtled  iron, 
the  amount  of  '  combined  '  carbon  largely  increasing,  and 


316  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

that  of  'graphitic'  carbon  correspondingly  decreasing. 
The  converse  change  can  be  brought  about  in  some  kinds 
of  white  iron  by  fusing  and  very  slowly  cooling  them, 
a  notable  separation  of  graphite,  and  diminution  in  the 
quantity  of  combined  carbon  present,  being  thus  brought 
about. 

The  above  facts  lead  us  to  these  conclusions,  that  by  the 
sudden  cooling  of  the  molten  iron,  caused  by  its  intimate 
contact  with  the  chill  at  the  rim  of  the  wheel,  the  carbon 
at  that  portion  is  held  in  chemical  combination  with  the 
metal,  any  separation  of  combined  carbon  into  graphite 
being  prevented  by  the  rapid  cooling  spoken  of. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  natural  separation  of  graphite, 
superinduced  by  the  slower  process  of  cooling  which  takes 
place  at  the  inner  parts,  goes  on  with  an  easily  discernible 
tendency  to  a  maximum  degree  of  softness  at  the  centre  of 
the  wheel,  that  point  being  the  last  to  become  cold;  conse- 
quently we  have  a  rim  hard  as  hardened  steel  on  the  tread, 
the  remaining  parts  becoming  gradually  softer  and  more 
tough  as  the  centre  is  approached. 

METAL   MIXING,   CASTING. 

As  previously  affirmed,  the  mixing  of  the  metal  for  car- 
wheels  to  be  chilled  is  preeminently  the  chief  feature  in 
this  remarkable  industry,  and  can  only  be  accomplished 
satisfactorily  when  conducted  by  some  responsible  person 
whose  only  business  it  is  to  make  selections  from  an  intel- 
ligently graded  stock  of  irons,  chiefly  charcoal,  which  are 
supposed  to  possess  qualities  suitable  for  this  class  of  work 
cspecia-lly.  By  unremitting  attention  to  the  results  of  tests 
made  daily  from  small  cupolas  provided  for  the  purpose,  lie 
so  proportions  his  mixtures  as  to  bring  about  the  required 
depth  of  chill. 

Any  attempt  to  give  mixtures  for  such  work  is  rendered 


CHILLED   CAR-WHEELS.  317 

futile  on  account  of  the  variations  in  the  quality  and  nature 
of  the  iron  supplied,  as  most  all  of  the  iron  received  at 
these  works  must  be  tested  by  the  fracture,  and  graded  by 
the  mixer  in  a  manner  intelligible  only  to  himself. 

To  insure  a  thorough  mixing  of  the  iron  when  melted,  so 
that  no  portion  of  the  metal  used  shall  vary  in  the  slightest 
degree  from  what  has  been  previously  determined  by  the 
mixer,  a  large  tank  or  receiver,  geared  for  turning,  is  pro- 
vided, which  stands  immediately  in  front  of  the  cupolas 
and  receives  the  molten  iron  from  each  at  as  many  spouts 
as  there  are  cupolas.  The  capacity  of  these  tanks  varies, 
according  to  requirements,  from  10  to  20  tons. 

By  means  of  this  method  a  large  supply  of  well-mixed 
metal  is  constantly  on  hand  for  filling  the  casting  ladles, 
which  are  usually  run  under  the  lip  of  the  receiver  on 
trucks.  When  filled,  they  are  quickly  run  towards  the 
crane  (each  floor  in  most  cases  being  provided  with  an  in- 
dependent crane)  for  casting. 

Where  so  large  an  amount  of  iron  is  handled  by  this 
means,  it  is  important  that  everything  be  hot  to  commence 
with  — both  ladles  and  receiver ;  therefore  a  plentiful  supply 
of  charcoal  is  always  on  hand  for  that  purpose,  the  surface 
of  the  receiver  being  especially  cared  for  in  this  respect. 

Almost  as  soon  as  cast,  preparations  are  made  for  releas- 
ing the  wheels,  which  must  whilst  red-hot  be  dispatched  to 
the  annealing  ovens,  where,  by  a  slow  process  of  cooling,  the 
tension  of  the  particles  of  metal  is  equalized,  and  ttie  wheel 
rendered  more  able  to  stand  the  hard  wear  and  tear  of  rail- 
road usage. 

ANNEALING. 

The  process  of  annealing  chilled  car-wheels  requires  some 
address  and  experience  to  perform  it  in  the  best  possible 
manner,  and  varies  in  the  degree  of  heat  applied,  as  well 


318  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

as  in  the  period  of  cooling,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
metal  operated  upon. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  directed  to  this  subject, 
the  object  being  to  make  the  web  soft  and  tough,  that  it 
might  withstand  the  jar  and  strain  incident  to  use,  and  at 
the  same  time  have  a  hardened  rim  that  will  bear  the 
wear. 

In  order  to  accomplish  this,  ovens  or  annealing  pits  are 
provided  in  sufficient  number  and  capacity  to  take  in  all  the 
wheels  as  they  are  cast.  These  ovens,  usually  set  level  with 
the  floor,  are  so  arranged  that  a  constant  emptying  and  re- 
filling may  be  kept  up  without  interruption,  and  are  some- 
times made  of  sheet-iron  cylinders  lined  with  brickwork,  the 
whole  resting  over  a  flue  or  heat-chamber,  which  connects 
with  a  furnace,  from  which  latter  the  heat  passes  through 
the  chambers  into  the  ovens  at  the  bottom.  A  very  small 
amount  of  fuel  is  sufficient  for  this  purpose,  the  object  being 
to  simply  prevent  the  castings  from  cooling  too  rapidly. 

Three  days  is  the  usual  time  allowed  for  annealing. 

The  processes  of  annealing  are  not,  however,  the  same  at 
all  places  :  some  merely  place  the  wheels  in  a  pile  in  cylin- 
drical pits  provided  with  non-conducting  jackets,  which 
protracts  the  period  of  cooling,  and  contributes  to  the  effec- 
tiveness of  the  operations. 

Another  method  is  to  pile  them  in  the  oven  symmetrical!}^ 
and  allow  a  blast  of  air  to  be  carried  through  the  centres  of 
the  hubs  which  form  a  continuous  duct  to  the  top,  as  seen 
at  Fig.  193.  Dampers  may  be  placed  at  the  inlet  J,  also  at 
the  chimney  B,  affording  means  for  regulating  the  passage 
of  air,  and  thereby  modifying  the  rate  of  cooling.  By  this 
means  the  wheels  are  induced  to  commence  cooling  at  the 
centres,  the  cooling  gradually  extending  outwards.  In  this 
instance  the  heat  is  at  no  time  sufficient  to  'draw  the  chill/ 
and  for  this  reason  is  to  be  preferred  to  some  other  methods 
which  are  open  to  objection  on  that  account.  The  figure 


CHILLED  CAR -WHEELS. 


319 


shows  only  seven  wheels,  but  it  is  common  to  pile  from  10 
to  15  in  one  pit. 

In  some  other  places  layers  of  charcoal  are  placed  between 
the  wheels  as  they  are  piled  in  the  pit,  which  is  so  arranged 


Fig.  193. 

that  the  quantity  of  air  may  be  graduated  to  regulate  the 
combustion. 

Another  method  is  to  insert  intervening  rings,  so  placed 
as  to  separate  the  chilled  tire  from  the  web  which  is  to  be 
annealed.  The  interior  space  around  the  hubs  is  filled  with 


320  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

charcoal,  and  the  outside  space  around  the  tires  is  filled 
with  sand.  The  charcoal,  being  ignited  by  the  heat  of  the 
wheels,  burns  slowly  and  anneals  the  web,  while  the  sand 
protects  the  tread  from  the  same  action ;  thus,  it  is  claimed, 
retaining  the  chilled  surface  which  it  has  acquired  in  cast- 
ing. 

An  improvement  on  the  preceding  method  is  claimed  for 
a  mode  of  introducing  the  air-draught,  and  in  the  mode  of 
isolating  the  tires.  The  wheels  are  piled  upon  supporting 
rings  at  the  bottom  of  the  oven,  so  that  a  passage  is  formed 
by  the  holes  through  the  hubs  for  cold  air,  and  another  pas- 
sage around  the  tread  of  the  wheels  for  the  draught,  for  burn- 
ing the  charcoal  which  is  distributed  upon  the  perforated 
flanges  of  the  ring  interposed  between  each  wheel.  The 
openings  in  the  base  of  the  annealing  oven  are  the  means  of 
admission  of  atmospheric  air  to  aid  in  the  combustion,  and 
this  supply  is  graduated  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  case. 
Another  opening  admits  the  air  to  pass  upwards  through 
the  hubs, 

It  is  needless  to  state  that  where  chilled  wheels  are  made 
in  great  quantities  the  very  best  appliances  for  handling  are 
indispensable.  For  a  long  time  steam  and  hydraulic  power 
has  been  utilized  at  all  such  places,  the  lattor  principle 
serving  a  good  purpose  at  the  annealing-pits,  where  red-hot 
wheels  must  be  handled  quickly;  but  of  late  compressed  air 
has  come  into  use  for  power  in  the  car-wheel  foundries,  with 
eminent  success. 

The  use  of  compressed  air  has  been  adopted  at  numbers 
of  places  where  steam  was  found  to  be  objectionable  on  ac- 
count of  the  noise  when  escaping,  and  the  general  dampness 
around  ;  also  at  other  places  where  it  was  thought  desirable 
to  avoid  the  annoyance  from  leaking  and  loss  of  time  usually 
incident  to  a  hydraulic  system. 

Whatever  principle  of  oven  is  used,  it  is  important  that 
the  wheels,  as  soon  as  set  almost,  be  taken  out  of  the  flasks 


FIRE- CL AYS  AND  FIRE-BRICKS.  321 

and  placed  therein  whilst  red  hot,  and  before  any  of  the 
strains  incident  to  unequal  cooling  should  come  upon  them. 
This  is  done  with  a  marvellous  degree  of  alacrit}'  at  some 
places  by  aid  of  the  splendid  equipment  provided:  the 
wheels  are  rapidly  relieved  from  the  flasks,  placed  on  trucks, 
and  run  to  the  ovens  direct,  where  they  are  again  as  rapidly 
lifted  and  piled  into  the  ovens,  and  straightway  covered  up. 
In  some  shops  the  annealing  ovens  are  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  moulding  floor,  in  which  case  they  are  piled 
direct  as  they  are  lifted  out  of  the  sand  ;  where  this  can  be 
done  it  is  unquestionably  the  better  plan. 

TESTING. 

After  the  allotted  time  for  annealing  has  expired,  the 
wheels  are  lifted  out  of  the  ovens  and  transferred  to  the 
cleaning  rooms,  where  the  fins  and  sand  are  removed,  after 
which  they  undergo  such  a  testing  as  would  naturally  startle 
any  one  accustomed  only  to  the  lower  grades  of  cast  iron. 

No  effort  is  spared  to  discover  flaws  of  any  description; 
cracks  soon  reveal  themselves  under  the  heavy  sledging 
they  receive,  and  dirt-spots  are  soon  discovered  by  the 
sharp  pick  which  in  most  places  is  freely  used  over  the 
surface.  The  chill  also  receives  its  share  of  attention,  to 
make  sure  that  it  is  deep  enough  or  not  too  deep,  a  fault 
either  way  condemning  it  at  once. 


FIRE-CLAYS  AND  FIRE-BRICKS. 

THE  principal  constituents  of  fire-clay  are  silica  and 
alumina,  accompanied  by  small  proportions  of  iron,  lime, 
magnesia,  water,  and  organic  matter,  being  sufficiently  free 
from  the  silicates  of  the  alkalies  to  resist  melting  at  very 
high  temperatures. 


322  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Fire-clay  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  special  term  for  the 
gray  clays  of  the  coal-measures,  interstratified  with  and 
generally  in  close  proximity  to  the  seams  of  coal,  in  beds 
varying  from  a  few  inches  to  many  yards  in  thickness. 
They  are  locally  known  as  'cluuches7  and  'uhderclays/ 
and  are  supposed  to  represent  the  soil  that  produced  the 
vegetation  from  which  the  coal  was  formed. 

It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  coal-measures,  and  varies  con- 
siderably in  its  quality  of  refractoriness.  The  gray  color 
of  the  coal-measure  clays  is  to  some  extent  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  carbonate  of  iron,  which  if  present  in  too  great 
quantity  is  prejudicial  to  the  clay  when  required  for  fire- 
brick. 

The  Stourbriclge  fire-clay  contains  silica  73.82,  alumina 
15.88,  protoxide  of  iron  2.94,  alkalies  0.90,  water  6.45, 
which  chemical  analysis  shows  a  preponderance  of  silica  in 
this  as  compared  with  the  tertiary  clays,  which  all  contain 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  alumina. 

Fire-clay  taken  from  the  coal-measures  has  an  average 
contraction  of  2  percent,  J  of  an  inch  for  drying  and  burn- 
ing being  the  amount  which  a  S ton rb ridge  brick  (9  inches 
long)  contracts  when  the  clay  is  not  previously  mixed  with 
some  burnt  material. 

A  close,  tough  nature  in  the  clay  used  for  making  fire- 
brick is  opposed  to  its  usefulness,  as  it  all  the  more  readily 
yields  to  the  melting  influence  of  the  fire;  allowing  that 
the  bricks  are  of  similar  chemical  properties,  the  course 
open  ones  are  always  the  best,  being  more  refractory. 

To  obtain  the  best  service  from  fire-bricks  under  almost 
any  condition,  they  should  be  burnt  until  the  contrac- 
tion has  all  taken  place,  and  besides  being  of  a  similar 
texture  all  through,  they  should  show  a  buff  color.  This 
can  only  be  accomplished  by  careful  firing.  To  discover 
the  true  quality  of  fire-bricks,  they  should  be  broken,  and 
if  they  show  a  dark  discoloration  in  the  heart  it  is  an 


evidence  o 

their 

for  the  Hi    1  1  1  1  1  I  m 


n 


323 

proof  of 

iccouuting 
common  use: 


should  they  be  too  open  they  will  crumble  and  waste,  and 
if  the  material  has  been  used  with  a  too  free  admixture  of 
small  stones  they  are  apt  to  split;  and  then  there  is  the 
constant  action  of  the  heat  itself,  which  is  ever  melting 
away  at  the  exposed  parts. 

The  method  usually  adopted  for  the  manufacture  of  fire- 
bricks is  to  incorporate  with  the  clay  about  one  third  of 
broken  fire-bricks.  In  this  case  a  double  purpose  is  served  — 
the  waste  is  used  and  the  brick  made  less  liable  to  contract. 
Sands  of  a  silicious  nature  are  also  employed  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  bricks  are  either  moulded  with  soft  clay  mix- 
ture direct  from  the  pug-mill,  or  a  drier  mixture  is  pre- 
pared for  compressing  into  iron  moulds  by  the  use  of 
machinery,  which  gives  a  cleaner  brick,  taking  less  clay 
to  make  the  joints  when  building  —  something  to  be  desired. 


GANISTEE. 

SIMPLY  speaking,  ganister  is  composed  of  certain  pro- 
portions of  ground  quartz,  or  silicious  rock,  sand,  and  fire- 
clay. It  is  extremely  refractory,  and  on  this  account  is 
largely  used  as  a  lining  for  Bessemer  converters  and  other 
vessels  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  It  enters  largely  into 
the  mixtures  for  forming  the  moulds  intended  for  steel  cabl- 
ings. The  ganister  preferred  for  linings  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Sheffield,  England,  is  a  peculiar  silicious  deposit 
found  under  a  thin  coal-seam  in  that  district;  it  is  of  al- 
most conchoidal  fracture,  therein  differing  from  ordinary 
sandstones,  and  containing  a  few  tenths  per  cent  of  lime 


324  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

and  about  the  same  amount  of  alumina,  with  pmall  quanti- 
ties of  iron  oxide  arid  alkalies,  the  rest  being  silica. 


GRAPHITE  OR  PLUMBAGO. 

GRAPHITE  or  Plumbago,  the  'black  lead 'of  our  foun- 
dries, and  used  almost  everywhere  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tecting the  surface  of  moulds  against  the  great  heat  to 
which  they  are  subjected  from  the  molten  iron,  is  used 
largely  in  the  production  of  crucibles  also,  not  in  the 
pure  state,  but  in  admixture  with  fire-clay:  the  propor- 
tion of  the  former  varies  with  the  quality  from  25  to 
nearly  50  per  cent.  These  are  the  most  enduring  of  all 
crucibles,  the  best  lasting  out  50  or  60  meltings  in  the 
brass  foundry,  about  45  with  bronze,  and  8  to  10  in  steel 
melting.  The  best  Ceylon  graphite  is  emplo}'ed,  usually, 
in  all  the  principal  crucible  works  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  in  the  graphite-producing  localities  of  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  It  is  used  also  in  the  manufacture 
of  black-lead  pencils.  It  is  notable  that  plumbago  is  oc- 
casionally found  in  masses  of  meteoric  iron,  and  that  a 
substance  of  similar  physical  and  chemical  characters  is 
produced  in  the  blast-furnace  during  the  preparation  of 
cast  iron,  the  same  element  being  unpleasantly  found  in 
the  ladles  when  the  metal  melted  from  irons  rich  in 
graphite  becomes  dull.  Graphite  is  polymorphous,  has 
a  bright  metallic  lustre  of  a  steel-gray  color,  and  when 
pure  is  absolutely  free  from  grit;  when  pulverized  and 
rubbed  between  the  fingers,  and  the  polish  produced  in  the 
same  way  is  instantaneous  and  very  bright,  being  like  a 
darker  shade  of  polished  silver.  It  is  very  refractory  in 
closed  vessels,  but  combustible  in  air  or  oxygen  at  a  high 


FUEL.  325 

heat.  It  is  infusible.  The  laminated  and  foliated  varie- 
ties are  difficult  to  pulverize,  reducing  to  scales  instead  of 
grains,  and  if  it  is  wanted  very  finely  divided,  must  be 
ground  in  water.  These  varieties  are  found  in  Ceylon  and 
in  some  of  our  own  States  and  in  Canada.  A  good  granu- 
lated graphite  is  found  in  Sonora,  Mexico,  and  that  from 
Japan  is  of  the  same  character;  but  the  granulated  kind 
best  known  to  commerce  is  found  in  Bohemia  and  Bavaria, 
which  is  cheap  in  price,  but  poor  in  quality  for  use  in  the 
arts.  It  is  from  the  latter  kind  that  the  cheap  foundry 
leads  are  manufactured,  but  not  being  very  refractor}',  it  ul- 
wavs  gives  poor  results.  Graphite  is  the  purest  carbon  next 
to  the  diamond,  but  requires  a  higher  heat  to  burn  it, 
and  leaves  a  reddish  ash  if  the  specimen  contains  a  trace 
of  iron,  as  most  of  it  does. 


FUEL. 

To  rightly  understand  the  nature  of  the  different  kinds 
of  fuel  at  our  command,  it  will  be  convenient  to  examine 
each  kind  separately,  beginning  with  fluid  inflammable 
bodies,  then  peat  or  turf,  then  wood-charcoal,  coke,  and 
lastly,  wood  or  coal  in  its  natural  condition,  with  the  abil- 
ity to  yield  a  copious  and  bright  flame.  The  fluid  inflam- 
mables may  be  taken  as  distinct  from  the  solid,  for  this 
reason,  that  they  may  be  burned  upon  a  wick,  and  by  this 
means  be  made  the  most  controllable  sources  of  heat ;  but 
as  a  rule  they  are  seldom  used  for  producing  it,  owing  to 
the  cost.  Alcohol  and  the  several  oils  are  the  kinds  which 
form  this  class  of  fuel.  Alcohol,  when  used  as  a  fuel, 
should  be  strong,  and  free  from  water,  to  obtain  the  best 
results  from  it. 

We  may  burn  oils  with  wicks  similar  to  alcohol,  but 
they  are  not  by  any  means  as  satisfactory.  Of  course  we 


326  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

may  employ  numerous  small  wicks,  or  use  the  argand 
burners  to  prevent  the  soot  accumulations  consequent  on 
the  simple  wick;  but  at  best  we  can  scarcely  avoid  the 
charring  of  the  wicks  in  any  case  which  prevents  them 
from  absorbing  the  requisite  quantity  of  oil  required  to 
maintain  a  steady  heat. 

Peat  or  turf  cannot  be  used  for  maintaining  great  heats, 
for  the  simple  reason  that  it  is  too  spongy  and  light.  This, 
of  course,  increases  its  bulk,  and  prevents  us  from  supply- 
ing a  sufficient  quantity  to  make  good  the  rapid  consump- 
tion which  is  inevitable  where  violent  heat  must  be  kept 
up.  Peat  is  supposed  to  give  about  one-fifth  of  the  heat 
produced  by  an  equal  weight  of  charcoal. 

Wood-charcoal  will  give  out  an  extreme  degree  of  heat. 
Dalton  obtained  a  result  equivalent  to  melting  40  pounds 
of  ice  with  one  pound  of  charcoal,  but  Tredgold  considers 
47  pounds  of  ice  melted  to  be  the  real  average  effect  of  one 
pound  of  charcoal. 

Coke  has  several  properties  common  to  wood-charcoal, 
but  is  a  more  suitable  fuel  for  long-continued  and  intense 
heats,  because,  containing  the  combustible  matter  in  a  more 
condensed  form,  it  is  consumed  much  slower,  and  can  be 
charged  in  less  bulk.  The  principal  reasons  for  its  being 
preferred  to  charcoal  for  melting  purposes  are,  that  it 
affords  a  greater  quantity  of  heat  before  it  is  consumed, 
and  at  less  expense. 

Wood  and  crude  coal  are  much  different  in  their  natures 
to  their  charcoals,  inasmuch  as,  when  a  plentiful  supply  of 
air  is  allowed  them,  they  will  afford  a  copious  and  bright 
flame;  whilst  smoke-laden  and  sooty  vapors  ensue  if  the 
air  allowed  is  limited  in  quantity;  the  heat  also  is  con- 
siderably diminished  when  the  latter  condition  prevails. 
The  hottest  wood  fires  are  those  produced  with  dry  wood. 
The  kind  of  wood  is  also  a  cause  of  some  difference;  lime- 
tree  wood  is  supposed  to  give  out  most  heat  iii  burning. 


FUEL.  327 

As  regards  the  different  kinds  of  coal,  they  may  be  classi- 
fied from  various  points  of  view,  such  as  their  chemical  com- 
position, and  their  behavior  when  subjected  to  heat.  They 
nil  contain  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  form- 
ing the  carbonaceous  or  combustible  portion,  and  some 
quantity  of  mineral  matter  which  remains  after  combus- 
tion as  a  residue  or  "ash."  The  nearest  approach  to  pure 
carbon  in  coal  is  furnished  by  anthracite,  which  yields 
above  90  per  cent.  This  class  of  coal  burns  with  a  very 
small  amount  of  flame,  producing  intense  local  heat,  and 
no  smoke.  It  is  especially  useful  in  blast-furnaces  and 
cupolas,  but  is  not  as  suitable  for  reverberator?  furnaces  as 
some  of  the  other  kinds.  The  most  important  class  of 
coals  is  that  generally  known  as  bituminous,  from  their 
property  of  softening,  or  undergoing  apparent  fusion  when 
heated  to  a  temperature  far  below  that  at  which  actual 
combustion  takes  place.  The  proportion  of  carbon  in 
bituminous  coals  may  vary  from  80  to  90  per  cent. 

The  common  fuel  in  India  and  Egypt  is  derived  from 
the  dung  of  camels  and  oxen  moulded  into  thin  cakes  and 
dried  in  the  sun.  It  has  a  very  low  heating  power,  and 
gives  off  acrid  ammoniacal  smoke  and  vapor  whilst  burning. 

Liquid  fuel  in  the  form  of  natural  petroleum,  and  the 
creosote-oil  from  coal-tar  distilleries,  have  recently  been 
adopted  for  heating  steam-boilers  and  other  purposes. 
Though  a  dangerous  substance,  it  becomes  perfectly  man- 
ageable when  blown  into  a  heated  combustion-chamber  as 
a  fine  spray  by  means  of  steam- jets,  where  it  is  immediately 
volatilized,  and  takes  fire.  The  heating-power  is  very 
great,  one  ton  of  creosote-oil  being  equal  to  2  or  2|  tons  of 
coal  in  raising  steam. 

Natural  gases,  consisting  principally  of  light  hydrocar- 
bons, have  now  become  an  acknowledged  agent  for  heat 
producing;  puddling  and  welding  furnaces  as  well  as  steam- 
boilers,  etc.,  are  entirely  fired  by  the  gas  from  wells  bored 


328  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

for  oil,  some  of  which  are  over  1200  feet  deep.  The  oil  is 
conveyed  to  the  several  works  through  a  line  of  pipe  ex- 
tending, in  some  instances,  many  miles  in  length,  and  is 
delivered  at  a  pressure  of  two  atmospheres. 


ANNEALING. 

ANNEALING  is  the  process  by  which  metallic  and  other 
mineral  productions  are  converted  from  a  brittle  to  a  com- 
paratively tough  quality,  presumed  to  be  caused  by  a  new 
arrangement  of  their  constituent  particles.  In  a  consider- 
able number  of  bodies  that  will  bear  ignition  it  is  found 
that  sudden  cooling  renders  them  hard  and  brittle,  while, 
on  the  contrary,  if  they  are  allowed  to  cool  very  gradual ly, 
they  become  softened  or  annealed.  We  have,  however, 
noticed  several  alloys  of  copper  (brass  in  particular),  in 
which  sudden  cooling  has  the  reverse  effect — that  of  anneal- 
ing it.  The  process  of  annealing  requires  ability  and 
experience  to  perform  it  properly,  and  varies  in  the  degree 
of  heat  applied,  as  well  as  in  the  period  of  cooling,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  metal  or  other  substance  operated 
upon.  In  the  annealing  of  steel  and  iron  the  metal  is 
heated  to  a  low  redness,  and  suffered  to  be  gradually 
reduced  in  its  temperature,  covered  up  on  a  hearth.  Ovens 
are  constructed  for  this  purpose,  wherein  the  pieces  of 
metal,  according  to  their  massiveness  and  the  quality  it  is 
desired  they  should  possess,  are  placed  and  retained  at  a 
low  heat  for  days,  and  sometimes  weeks  together.  The 
annealing  of  glass  is  performed  precisely  in  the  same 
manner. 


HOW  TO  REPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS.  329 


HOW  TO   REPAIR  BROKEN  AND   CRACKED 
CASTINGS. 

THE    FOUNDRY    METHODS    OF   'BURNING'   ALL   CLASSES    OF 
WORK   FULLY   EXPLAINED   AND   ILLUSTRATED. 

To  say  that  more  than  half  the  attempts  to  repair 
castings  by  the  process  of  'burning'  are  failures,  is  by  no 
means  a  random  statement;  and  there  are  large  numbers  of 
intelligent  moulders  with  practical  experience  in  this  some- 
what abused  branch  of  the  trade  who  are  convinced  of  its 
truth. 

How  it  is  that  failures  occur  so  often  does  not  always 
strike  the  average  moulder,  and  he  is  forced  to  retire  from 
his  sometimes  self-imposed  task  as  gracefully  as  he  knows 
how,  and  find  consolation  for  his  wounded  pride  behind 
that  oft-quoted  refuge  of  the  ignorant,  viz.,  'It  can't  be 
done.'  But  this  is  only  another  proof,  added  to  the  many 
already  adduced,  that  our  education  comes  far  behind  in 
matters  of  this  description*,  and  we  must,  for  some  time 
longer  at  least,  continue  to  grope  in  the  dark. 

If  past  experimenters  in  the  art  of  burning  had  been 
more  intelligent,  the  list  of  failures  would  most  unquestion- 
ably not  have  been  as  numerous;  for  the  simple  reason 
that,  possessing  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  such  un- 
dertakings, impossibilities  would  have  been  more  rarely 
attempted.  They  would  have  at  once  consigned  to  the 
scrap-pile  most  of  the  defective  castings,  knowing  that  any 
attempt  at  burning  must  inevitably  result  in  a  waste  of 
time  and  ultimate  loss. 

Even  when  the  advisability  of  attempting  a  'burn'  is 
left  to  the  judgment  of  the  most  scientific  amongst  us, 


330  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

there  is  a  lack  of  positiveness  in  his  utterances  and  manner. 
He  is  well  aware  of  the  countless  circumstances  which  are 
against  success,  and  takes  care  to  supplement  his  grave 
advice  by  quoting  a  few  of  the  adverse  possibilities  in  the 
case,  and  invariably  ends  by  asking  his  more  practical 
associate  how  similar  cases  have  resulted  in  his  past  ex- 
perience. 

It  may  be  well  to  observe  here,  that  past  experience  in 
this  business  is  not  by  any  means  to  be  always  taken  as 
reliable  data.  Difference  in  construction  and  proportion 
of  parts,  one  casting  from  another,  are  easily  overlooked  in 
similar  castings,  making  them,  whilst  similar,  not  alike. 
Quality  and  nature  of  the  iron  contained  in  the  castings  are 
sure  to  differ,  and  even  should  these  conditions  approxi- 
mate somewhat,  there  may  be  structural  differences,  caused 
by  the  different  temperature  of  the  metal  with  which  the 
castings  were  poured;  in  one  instance  hot  and  fluid,  giv- 
ing homogeneousness  and  strength,  and  in  the  other  dull 
and  sluggish,  with  the  resulting  overlapping  cold-shuts, 
and  all  the  other  weakening  influences  incident  to  cold 
pouring. 

Before  attempting  to  repair  any  important  casting  by 
burning,  consider  well  its  general  make-up,  the  variations 
of  form,  differences  of  thickness,  rigidity,  general  or  only 
partial;  then  think  how  this  is  going  to  be  affected  by  the 
extreme  heat  which  must  be  applied  to  the  parts  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  place  to  be  fused. 

Expansion  is  an  irresistible  force,  and  just  as  soon  as 
this  extreme  heat  is  imparted  to  one  part  of  the  casting 
the  adj  icent  parts  are  acted  upon  at  once:  if  there  is  suf- 
ficient elasticity  in  the  general  make-up  of  the  casting  to 
allow  of  this  thrust  taking  place  without  fracture,  there  is 
a  possibility  of  its  resuming  its  original  shape  when  con- 
traction takes  place.  This  is  the  difficulty  met  with  when 
it  is  attempted  to  join  together,  by  fusion,  the  cracked  arms 


HOW  TO  REPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS.  331 

of  wheels,  bed-plates  broken  in  mid-section,  cracks  or  holes 
in  cylinders,  condensers,  etc. 

The  mere  fact  of  fusing  the  fractured  surfaces,  and  thus 
joining  the  broken  ends  together  by  leaving  a  quantity  of 
molten  iron  between,  is  very  easy  of  accomplishment  on 
fairly  soft  iron,  but  to  avoid  the  dangers  consequent  on  the 
operation  of  doing  this  is  a  difficulty  not  to  be  overcome  so 
easily. 

Now,  if  it  were  safe  and  practicable  to  heat  np  to  nearly 
melting-point  all  castings  to  be  burned,  and  then  fuse 
the  fractured  parts  instantly,  the  dangers  from  imperfect 
fusion  or  breakage  would  be  reduced  to  a  minimum;  but 
all  who  have  had  any  real  experience  in  this  unsatisfactory 
phase  of  the  moulder's  art  know  how  almost  impossible  it 
is  to  meet  all  these  conditions.  Just  in  proportion  as  these 
conditions  fail  of  being  met  will  the  measure  of  success  be. 

The  above  considerations,  taken  in  conjunction  with  the 
fact  that  the  parts  melted  must  become,  when  cold,  as 
much  smaller  as  their  full  amount  of  shrinkage  measures, 
whilst  the  remaining  parts,  no  matter  how  much  the  cast- 
ing may  have  been  expanded  by  the  regularly  employed 
methods  of  heating,  do  not  shrink  as  much  by  fully  75  per 
cent,  will  explain  why  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  success- 
fully accomplish  such  jobs  when  the  fracture  is  remote 
from  the  extremities  of  the  casting. 

When  the  fracture  is  at  the  extremities,  as  at  the  corners 
of  plates,  pieces  of  propeller-blades,  etc.,  or  when  two 
whole  sections  are  to  be  attached  either  by  fusing  the 
broken  pieces  together,  or  by  casting  on  a  new  piece  en- 
tirely, as  in  fractured  shafts,  rolls,  etc.,  all  difficulty  ceases. 
These  latter,  having  freedom  endwise  for  expansion,  leave 
nothing  to  be  done  except  to  make  sure  of  a  perfect  fusing 
of  the  broken  surfaces,  whilst  in  the  previously  mentioned 
instances  differences  in  degree  of  temperature,  caused  by 
unequal  distribution  of  parts  with  the  consequent  unequal 


332  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

expansion,  are  sometimes  sufficient  in  themselves  to  pro- 
duce disaster  from  breakage.  This  danger  is  supplemented 
by  the  before-mentioned  fact  that,  inasmuch  as  there  are 
differences  in  the  amount  of  shrinkage  betwixt  the  new 
parts  and  the  old,  there  always  remains  this  important 
factor,  that  if  the  parts  immediately  adjacent  to  the  added 
metal  are  held  rigid  by  the  strength  of  those  bohind  them, 
they  cannot  po?sibly  follow  up  the  full  shrinkage  of  the 
new  metal,  and  a  forcible  separation  must  therefore  take 
place. 

Aside  from  this,  should  the  rigidity  spoken  of  not  exist, 
the  internal  strains  produced  may  act  with  such  force  upon 
thu  unequally  distributed  metal  as  to  rend  the  casting 
asunder  at  its  weakest  place. 

Twovgood  illustrations  of  the  difficulties  we  have  been 
discussing  are  shown  at  Figs.  194  and  195.  The  pillow-block 


.   Fig.  194.  Fig.  195. 

cap,  Fig.  194,  being  6  inches  thick, a  rising  head,  4  inches 
diameter,  was  placed  at  A,  and  accidentally  broken  off  whilst 
hot,  tearing  out  a  portion  of  the  casting,  as  shown  at  B. 
The  party  in  charge  insisted  upon  burning  at  once,  and 
proceeded  to  demonstrate  his  ability  by  first  heating  the 
casting  red-hot,  placing  a  core  around  the  damaged  part, 
and  pouring  about  1500  pounds  of  blazing-hot  iron  direct 
upon  it,  working  the  surface  with  a  bent  rod  during  the 
operation  of  pouring.  So  far  as  melting  the  surface  was 
concerned,  he  was  eminently  successful,  th<3  result  being 
a  hole  over  3£  inches  deep  and  about  7  inches  diameter. 


HOW  TO  EEPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS.  333 

After  the  superfluous  iron  had  been  removed,  and  the  sur- 
face well  filed,  I  examined  the  job  critically,  and  found 
that  the  above  conclusions  were  verified  unmistakably: 
the  newly  added  metal  had  very  perceptibly  shrunk  away 
from  the  rigid  walls  of  the  casting,  forming  a  core  of  metal 
more  or  less  disconnected  at  the  sides,  as  shown  at  (J.  D. 
It  was  not  until  oil  had  been  allowed  to  run  into  the  nVure 
and  had  been  again  attracted  to  the  surface  by  rubbing 
soft  chalk  over  it,  that  my  friend  could  believe  such  a 
thing,  although  to  a  willing  mind  the  fact  was  plain  to  the 
sight  before  recourse  was  had  to  the  latter-mentioned  aids. 

It  will  be  plain  from  the  above,  that  it  is  always  desirable 
to  limit  the  area  of  new  metal,  and  thus  lessen  the  total 
shrinkage,  by  ceasing  to  pour  as  soon  as  the  fusion  is 
effected. 

Fig.  195  shows  end  section  of  a  24-inch  cylinder  1  \  inches 
thick;  any  attempt  to  mend  such  places  by  these  means 
invariably  ends  as  shown. 

It  may  be  asserted  by  some  that  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  successfully  (?)  burn  holes  in  round  and  square  columns, 
and  even  to  attach  lugs  and  brackets  by  this  means;  but 
I  am  very  much  afraid  that  if  the  results  were  carefully 
looked  for  by  a  responsible  party,  most  of  such  attempts 
would  be  found  more  or  less  faulty,  and  that  the  extent  of 
damage  done  would  be  always  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  new  iron  introduced. 

One  reason  why  so  much  of  this  class  of  work  passes 
muster  is,  that  the  paint  effectually  hides  the  fault  from- 
sight,  and  there  being  no  subsequent  trial  by  pressure  from 
steam,  air,  water,  etc.,  the  extent  of  such  damage  is  never 
ascertained,  unless  the  casting  should  collapse  when  the 
load  comes  on. 

I  have  in  mind  an  eminent  structural  engineer  and  iron 
manufacturer,  whose  belief  in  the  truth  of  the  above  is  so 
strong  that  he  will  not  allow  burning  to  be  practised  on 


334  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

any  casting  which  will  be  called  upon  to  sustain  a  constant 
load. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  risks  are  taken  oftentimes  with 
apparently  satisfactory  results,  but  this  does  not  prove  the 
c;ise,  and  it  is  always  safest  to  try  again  whenever  there  is 
a  doubt  in  the  case.  In  fact,  taking  into  consideration 
the  amount  of  time  and  labor  in  transporting,  heating, 
and  all  the  subsequent  manipulations  entailed  by  a  '  big 
burning  job/  it  is  in  the  end  made  almost  as  costly  an 
operation  as  moulding  over  again,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
probabilities  of  failure  always  attendant  upon  such  efforts. 

For  the  successful  treatment  of  such  castings  as  are  con- 
sidered safe  to  operate  upon  by  the  process  of  burning, 
there  are  some  few  conditions  which  are  indispensable  to 
the  production  of  a  correct  job.  If  the  casting  to  be  oper- 
ated upon  is  very  hard,  the  chances  for  success  are  materially 
lessened;  the  brittleness  of  hard  iron  being  proportionate 
to  its  hardness,  this  latter  objection  must  be  added  to  the 
difficulty  of  effecting  perfect  fusion.  The  softer  the  iron 
the  more  readily  will  it  fuse. 

The  same  may  be  said  with  reference  to  the  iron  used 
for  burning  with.  If  the  iron  used  for  burning  be  hard,  it 
loses  its  heat  rapidly,  and  so  conduces  to  failure  in  effect- 
ing a  junction  by  its  inability  to  cut  into  the  surface  acted 
upon;  whilst  soft  iron,  with  its  carbon  principally  graphitic, 
is  more  fluid,  and  retains  its  heat  for  a  longer  time.  The 
holler  the  iron  the  more  speedy  and  effectual  is  the  opera- 
tion. 

All  surfaces  to  be  operated  upon  should  be  cleansed 
thoroughly  from  every  particle  of  foreign  matter,  such  as 
sand,  grease,  etc.  If  there  is  any  doubt  \\  hatever,  let  a  new 
surface  be  formed  by  chipping,  drilling,  filing,  or  any  other 
way  that  will  aid  in  presenting  a  pure,  raw  surface  to  the 
action  of  the  molten  iron. 

Open  burning  along  a  crack  is  wonderfully  expedited 


HOW  TO  REPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS. 


335 


by  having  one  lip  at  least  of  the  pouring-ladle  made  after 
the  manner  shown  at  A,  Fig.  196;  very  many  failures  are 
attributable  to  the  mean  appliances  provided.  A  self-acting 
skimmer,  the  surface  of  the  iron  protected  from  the  action 
of  the  air  by  two  inches  of  charcoal,  and  a  ladle-lip  like  the 
one  shown,  will  give  good  results  invariably. 

As  before  stated,  there  is  but  one  rule  in  regard  to  heat- 
ing the  castings  to  be  burned;  that  is,  to  make  them  as  hot 


Fig.  196. 


as  practicable  for  working  around.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this  as  near  as  possible,  make  all  the  necessary  preparations 
beforehand;  let  the  new  portions  of  mould,  cakes,  cores, 
runners,  etc.,  be  made  in  loam  or  dry  sand  of  hard,  tough 
texture,  and,  remembering  that  the  casting  will  be  hot,  be 
sure  to  provide  for  a  quick  and  easy  adjustment  of  all  the 
pieces  by  a  judicious  paring  of  the  joining  parts,  so  that 
everything  will  fit  at  once,  and  no  time  be  lost.  The  pieces 
thus  prepared  can  be  dried  during  the  time  the  casting  is 
being  heated. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  adopt  a  method  of  slow  cooling 
or  annealing  after  the  operation  of  burning  is  performed; 
a  very  good  place  for  this  purpose  is  the  oven  when  it  can 
be  spared  conveniently:  in  fact,  with  all  casting-shaving 


336 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


complicated  parts  some  method  of  annealing  is  indispens- 
able.     Tiie  slower  they  are  cooled  the  better. 

Sometimes  a  casting  is  broken  after  the  manner  shown 
at  ^4,  Fig.  197.  When  it  is  thought  best  to  burn  such  a  job 
on  its  flat,  and  the  broken  piece  cannot  be  found,  let  a  cast- 
ing be  made  answering  to  the  form  required,  taking  care 
to  cut  away  the  skin  at  the  part  to  be  joined;  these  can 
then  be  laid  together  and  fused,  as  will  be  explained  far- 
ther on.  Much  anxiety  and  trouble  might  be  saved  some- 
times if,  when  immediately  the  casting  is  poured  and  there 
is  a  doubt  as  to  its  soundness,  the  cope  was  lifted,  and  the 


1 1 


Fig.   197. 

holes,  if  any  are  found,  were  burned  at  once  whilst  the  cast- 
ing is  red-hot. 

Another  important  feature  in  burning  on  a  new  piece, 
such  as  a  tooth  of  a  wheel,  etc.,  is  to  so  place  the  casting 
that  the  molten  iron  will  be  sure  to  pass  over  the  whole  sur- 
face, and  also  to  make  such  an  outlet  at  the  lowest  part  of 
the  fracture  as  will  insure  a  steady  outflow  of  the  cooled 
iron  after  it  has  heen  forced  over  the  surface  to  be  fused  ; 
Fig.  198  shows  a  spur-gear  fixed  so  as  to  answer  these  con- 
ditions. 

If  after  failure  to  effect  a  junction  it  is  thought  advisable 
to  make  a  second  attempt,  be  sure  to  cut  the  burnt  portion 
away  until  the  good  graphitic  iron  is  found;  the  partially 
decarbonized  iron,  previously  in  contact  with  the  molten 


HOW  TO  REPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS.  337 

iron  would  effectually  preclude  all  possibility  of  a  second 
fusion  at  that  place. 

Burning  on  to  or  attaching  cast  iron  to  steel  when  the 
surface  to  be  acted  upon  is  considerable,  is  attended  with 
much  difficulty  on  account  of  the  conditions  previously 
spoken  of;  but  here  again  it  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the 
nearer  the  two  metals  can  be  brought  together  in  tempera- 
ture before  pouring,  the  less  danger  there  will  be  of  ulti- 
mate rupture  from  internal  strains.  To  this  end  the  steel 


to  be  cast  on  should  be  heated  to  as  high  a  temperature  as 
possible,  and  set  into  a  suitably  prepared  dry  mould,  the 
latter  to  be  instantly  closed,  and  very  hot  iron  dropped 
from  a  considerable  height  directty  upon  it. 

Fig.  199  shows  a  temporary  method  of  casting  a  flange  on 
a  pipe.  This  is  not  a  burning  process;  as  the  pipe  to  bo 
thus  treated  must  first  have  a  notch  cut  round  its  circum- 
ference, as  seen,  and  being  set  on  end  in  the  floor  the 
flange  is  formed  by  means  of  a  pattern,  using  a  covering 
flask  and  gating  in  the  usual  manner.  The  rigid  pipe 
naturally  interferes  with  the  contraction  of  the  ne\v  flange, 
so  that  this  method  is  limited  to  pipes  of  small  diameter. 
Wrought  pipes  can  readily  be  provided  with  extemporized 
flanges  of  this  kind,  the  thread  end  forming  an  excellent 
fastening. 

Going  back  to  Fig.  197,  we  will  endeavor  to  show  how  a 


338 


THE  IRON -FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


casting  of  this  kind  may  be  repaired.  The  figure  repre- 
sents an  elbow-pipe  36  inches  diameter,  with  square  base  at- 
tached. Should  the  piece  at  A,  A  be  broken  off,  it  may  be 
fused  to  the  casting  by  following  the  directions  given.  Let 
the  casting,  previously  made  as  hot  as  practicable,  be  sunk 
into  the  floor,  and  place  the  first  core,  A,  Fig.  200,  directly 
under  the  fracture,  evenly  divided  as  seen;  the  piece  to  be 
attached  is  then  set  in  its  place,  slightly  apart  from  the 
main  piece,  so  that  the  molten  iron  can  find  its  way  unin- 
terruptedly between;  cores  B,  C,  D,  and  E  are  then  set  in 
position  as  shown  at  Fig.  201.  These  cores  are  then  to  be 


Fig.  199. 


Fig.  200. 


backed  firmly  with  sand,  as  shown  at  Fig.  200,  and  weighted 
down;  the  pig-bed  F  is  then  formed,  and  all  is  ready  for 
the  iron. 

With  a  ladle,  after  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  196,  a  steady 
stream  of  hot  iron  can  be  continuously  directed  along  the 
line  of  the  fissure.  Core  D  being  as  high  as  the  side  cores  G 
and  By  prevents  the  iron  from  escaping  in  that  direction;  it 
must  therefore  all  pass  out  over  core  E.  The  latter  core  be- 
ing raised  only  one  inch  higher  than  the  casting,  permits 
the  cooled  iron  to  flow  rapidly  away  into  the  pig-bed  F.  When 
these  jobs  are  so  placed  that  the  travelling  back  and  forth 
can  be  accomplished  by  means  of  the  racking-gear  on  the 
crane,  the  operation  is  materially  facilitated.  An  assistant 
with  a  rod  of  iron  to  feel  along  the  bottom  will  soon  dis- 
cover when  both  sides  of  the  fissure  are  fused,  at  which 


HOW  TO  REPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS.  339 

point  it  is  advisable  to  cease  pouring,  for  reasons  already 
adduced. 

Core  E  being  one  inch  higher  than  the  casting,  and  the 
hitter  being  set  level  in  the  floor,  will  allow  sufficient  iron 
to  remain  in  the  channel  for  finishing;  therefore  when  the 
pouring  has  ceased  it  is  only  necessary  to  cover  the  molten 
surface  well  with  charcoal,  and  to  subsequently  lay  a  few 
hot  scraps  over  all  to  prevent  too  rapid  cooling  at  that  part. 
It  is  not  wise  to  overdo  this  piling  on  of  scrap  as  some  do: 


Fig.  201. 


all  that  is  required  is  to  bring  about  equal  cooling  of  the 
whole  piece  as  boon  as  possible. 

It  might  be  thought  best  to  repair  this  or  any  other  sim- 
ilar job  with  the  web  on  edge,  in  which  case  all  that  would 
bo  required  would  be  to  set  cores  A  and  />,  as  seen  at  Fig. 
202,  with  the  additional  cores  C  and/),  as  seen  at  Fig.  203. 
These  cores  must  all  stand  3  inches  higher  than  the  edge 
of  the  casting;  the  opening  E  allows  the  cooled  iron  to 
pass  into  the  pig-bed  until  the  whole  surface  has  been  fused, 
when  a  clay  plug  on  the  end  of  the  cupola  man's  'bod- 
stick7  can  be  inserted  at  E,  the  pouring  continuing  unin- 
terruptedly in  the  mean  time,  until  the  metal  flows  out  at 
the  opening  F.  This  opening,  being  as  in  the  other  .cases 


340 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


one  inch  above  the  surface,  leaves  ample  metal  for  finishing 
purposes. 

To  burn  a  tooth  on  a  wheel  is  not  a  difficult  matter  if 
proper  means  are  taken  for  doing  it;  the  difficulty  consists 
rather  in  preventing  the  casting  from  breaking  during  the 
operation.  If  the  wheel  to  be  thus  mended  is  a  spur,  it  is 
best  to  set  it  down  in  the  floor  on  solid  bearings  in  about 
the  position  shown  at  Fig.  198,  A,  A  being  the  floor-line. 
Joints  A  and  B  can  then  be  formed,  and  flask  C  fashioned 


-\  r 


Fig.  202. 


Fig.  203. 


to  suit.  A  tooth  pattern  being  made  to  fit  the  broken  sur- 
face correctly,  the  flask  is  rammed  and  the  impression 
taken  in  dry  sand  facing,  the  pouring-gate  D  being  forim-d 
at  the  same  time.  The  outlet  E  is  cut,  as  seen  at  the  low- 
est point  of  the  tooth,  runs  under  the  flask,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  pig-bed  F,  when  the  final  preparations  are 
made. 

When  joint  B  is  formed,  it  may,  if  thought  desirable,  be 
secured  to  the  wheel  and  there  remain.  The  under  side  of 
the  wheel  adjacent  to  the  broken  tooth  must  be  formed  in 
dry  sand  after  the  most  approved  fashion;  by  this  means 
the  wheel  can  be  lifted  off  the  bearings  and  taken  else- 
where to  be  heated.  When  the  cope  is  dry  and  the  wheel 
hot  enough,  the  latter  is  again  set  down  in  its  original  posi- 


HO  W  TO  REPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS. 


841 


tion,the  cope  placed  on  and  secured,  and  the  pig-bed  made. 
Inasmuch  as  this  style  of  burning  is  essayed  in  a  closed 
mould  it  depends  entirely  on  experience  and  judgment  as 
to  how  much  iron  is  required  for  complete  fusion  by  this 
method.  When  sufficient  for  the  purpose  has  been  run 
through,  stop  the  outlet  at  G,  as  previously  instructed,  but 
don't  cease  pouring  until  the  metal  shows  at  D. 

To  burn  a  tooth  on  a  bevel-wheel  is  in  all  respects  sim- 
ilar to  the  preceding  case,  except  that,  owing  to  the  angle 


Fig.  204. 


Fig.  205. 


of  the  teeth  being  favorable  for  the  purpose,  the  wheel  may 
be  set  level  on  the  floor,  as  seen  at  Fig.  204. 

To  connect  the  two  broken  ends  of  a  cracked  wheel  or 
pulley-arm  is  perhaps  as  critical  a  job  as  could  be  at- 
tempted, and  requires  more  than  ordinary  watchfulness 
in  heating  the  casting.  Fig.  205  represents  the  arm  resting, 
with  core  A  set  directly  under  the  crack,  and  copo  B  with 
gate  C  rammed  over  the  top;  the  outlet  is  shown  at  D.  As 
this  operation  is  to  be  effected  in  a  closed  mould  also,  and 
fusion  produced  only  by  constant  contact  with  the  flowing 
metal,  and  not  by  friction  of  the  fluid  iron  over  the  surface, 
as  more  or  less  occurs  in  the  preceding  cases,  there  must 
be  no  mistake  about  the  iron  being  as  hot  as  it  is  possible 
to  make  it. 

This  is  one  of  the  instances  where  there  must  be  no  more 
new  metal  added  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  effect  a 
junction,  otherwise  the  local  shrinkage  of  the  added  metal 
will  be  sufficient  to  separate  it  again,  even  after  a  good  join 


342 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


has  been  made.  Fig.  206  shows  position  of  runner,  form  of 
covering  flask  with  running  gate  A  and  outlet  7?.  A  very 
excellent  way  to  insure  a  good  clean  surface,  which  will  yield 
quickly  to  the  fusing  influence  of  the  molten  iron,  is  to 
drill  i-inch  holes  along  the  entire  crack  clean  through;  a 
very  small  amount  of  hot  iron  is  then  required  to  effect 
a  perfect  junction  of  the  two  parts.  The  heating  of  such 
castings  as  these  may  be  done  after  the  manner  described 


Fig.  206. 


Fig.  207. 


for  gear-wheels,  but  the  greatest  circumspection  must  be 
exercised,  otherwise  disaster  will  ensue,  as  the  casting  will 
break  elsewhere. 

As  previously  affirmed,  the  burning  of  shafts,  rolls,  pro- 
peller-blades, etc.,  is  more  easy  of  accomplishment  than  any 
of  the  other  cases  cited.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  have 
the  casting  hot,  and  all  the  parts  to  be  added,  as  well  as  all 
cores  needed,  previously  prepared  in  dry  sand.  We  will 
suppose  a  24-inch  roll  with  the  neck  broken  off  close  to  the 
body:  this  will  necessitate  the  burning  on  of  a  new  14-inch 
neck  with  wabbler  attached.  Fig.  207  shows  a  section  of 
said  roll  endwise  in  the  floor,  with  its  broken  end  upwards 


HOW  TO  REPAIR  BROKEN  CASTINGS. 


343 


and  level  with  the  floor-line  at  A,  A.  The  two  flasks  B  and 
C  containing  mould  for  neck  and  wabbler,  also  rising  head 
D,  are  shown  as  set  thereon  and  ready  for  filling  with  iron. 
When  the  casting  has  been  rammed  up  to  the  top,  and 
the  joint  A  is  formed  level  all  round,  flask  B  is  set  central 


Fig.  208. 


thereon,  as  seen  at  B,  Fig.  208,  and  a  cast  plate,  with  a  hole 
equal  in  diameter  to  the  neck,  is  carefully  placed  on  the 
flask.  This  plate,  if  heavy  enough,  may  act  as  weight  for 
holding  down  as  well  as  shield  to  protect  the  top  joint. 
The  connection  of  the  outflow  with  the  pig-bed  is  then 
made  as  seen  at  E,  and  all  is  ready  for  the  iron,  of  which, 
for  a  job  of  this  description,  from  1500  to  2500  pounds,  ac- 
cording to  temperature,  is  needed.  Fusion  of  the  whole 


344  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

surface  is  best  accomplished  by  directing  the  stream  at 
different  parts  alternately,  and  at  the  same  time  rubbing 
the  surface  over  with  a  f-inch  rod  bent  for  the  purpose. 
The  person  whose  business  it  is  to  test  the  operation  as  it 
progresses  will  soon  discover  the  points  least  affected,  and 
direct  the  stream  of  molten  iron  to  be  changed  accordingly. 
As  soon  as  the  whole  surface  has  been  fused  the  outlet  is 
plugged,  and  that  portion  of  the  mould  filled  to  within  an 
inch  or  two  of  the  top.  The  surface  of  the  molten  iron  in 
the  mould  is  then  freed  from  all  scum  and  dirt  and  the 
plate  lifted  off,  after  which,  when  the  joint  has  been 
cleaned,  flask  C  is  placed  in  position  and  secured.  When 
this  has  been  done  the  remaining  portion  of  the  mould  is 
filled  through  the  rising-head  D,  nearly  level  with  the  top, 
and  the  same  system  of  feeding  is  followed  out  as  for  a  roll 
cast  ordinarily. 


BEAMS  OF  CAST  IRON. 

WHEN  a  beam  is  supported  in  the  middle  and  loaded  at 
each  end,  it  will  bear  the  same  weight  as  when  supported 
at  each  end  and  loaded  in  the  middle ;  that  is,  each  end 
will  bear  half  the  weight. 

Cast-iron  beams  should  not  be  loaded  to  more  than  one 
fifth  of  their  ultimate  strength. 

The  strength  of  similar  beams  varies  inversely  as  their 
lengths;  that  is,  if  a  beam  10  feet  long  will  support  1000 
pounds,  a  similar  beam  20  feet  long  would  support  only 
500  pounds. 

A  beam  supported  at  one  end  will  sustain  only  one  fourth 
part  of  the  weight  which  it  would  if  supported  at  both 
ends. 


BEAMS  OF  CAST  IRON.  345 

When  a  beam  is  fixed  at  both  ends  and  loaded  in  the 
middle  it  will  bear  one  half  more  than  it  will  when  loose 
at  both  ends. 

When  the  beam  is  loaded  uniformly  throughout  it  will 
bear  double. 

When  the  beam  is  fixed  at  both  ends  and  loaded  uni- 
formly throughout  it  will  bear  triple  the  weight. 

The  strongest  rectangular  bar  or  beam  that  can  be  cut 
out  of  a  cylinder  is  one  of  which  the  squares  of  the  breadth 
and  depth  of  it,  and  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder,  are  as  1, 
2,  and  3,  respectively. 

Girders  cast  with  a  face  up  are  stronger  than  when  cast 
on  a  side,  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  .96,  and  they  are 
strongest  also  when  cast  with  the  bottom  flange  up. 

A  cast-iron  beam  will  be  bent  to  one  third  of  its  break- 
ing-weight if  the  load  is  laid  on  gradually;  and  one  sixth  of 
it,  if  laid  on  at  once,  will  produce  the  same  effect  if  the 
weight  of  the  beam  is  small  compared  with  the  weight  laid 
on.  Hence  beams  of  cast  iron  should  be  made  capable 
of  bearing  more  than  six  times  the  greatest  weight  which 
will  be  laid  upon  them. 

Cast  and  wrought  iron  beams  having  similar  resistances 
have  weights  nearly  as  2.44  to  1. 

Cast-iron  beams  and  girders  should  not  be  loaded  to 
exceed  one  fifth  of  their  breaking-weight,  and  when  the 
strain  is  attended  with  concussion  and  vibration  this  pro- 
portion must  be  increased. 


346  1HE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


WROUGHT  OR  MALLEABLE  IRON. 

THE  difference  between  wrought  or  malleable  iron  and 
cast  iron  is  that  the  former  is  almost  free  from  carbon. 
All  the  processes  adopted  for  converting  cast  into  wrought 
iron  have  for  their  object  the  removing  of  the  carbon  from 
the  cast  iron. 

Phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  silicon  in  various  quantities 
are  almost  always  present  in  the  cast  iron,  and  it  is  equally 
important  that  these  deleterious  ingredients  be  taken  away 
also. 

Before  wrought  iron  can  be  produced  from  the  cast  iron 
the  Litter  must  be  subjected  to  the  several  processes  of 
refining,  puddling,  shingling  or  hammering,  and  rolling. 

The  refinery  usually  consists  of  a  flat  hearth,  made  with 
sand,  and  surrounded  with  a  water-jacket,  through  which 
a  stream  of  cold  water  is  kept  constantly  flowing,  to  prevent 
the  jacket  from  melting.  Tuyeres  which  connect  with  blow- 
ing-engine are  set  so  that  a  stream  of  air  may  be  made  to 
play  direct  upon  the  hearth.  The  precise  angle  at  which 
these  tuyeres  are  set  is  supposed  to  play  an  important  part 
in  this  operation.  Sometimes  the  iron  to  be  refined  is  run 
direct  from  the  blast-furnace  into  the  refinery;  but  when 
the  crude  iron  is  to  be  refined,  the  hearth,  which  is  about  4 
feet  square  and  20  inches  deep,  is  filled  with  coke  and  ig- 
nited, and,  by  the  aid  of  the  blast,  brought  to  a  high  temper- 
ature. The  pig  iron  is  now  thrown  on  and  additional  coke 
piled  on.  When  the  full  blast  has  been  applied  the  mass 
soon  melts  and  settles  to  the  bottom,  where,  it  may  be  said, 
the  process  of  refining  really  begins.  By  constant  stirring 
with  a  bar  the  attendant  brings  every  portion  of  the  mass 
under  the  influence  of  the  blast,  which  is  kept  constantly 


WROUGHT  OR  MALLEABLE  IRON.  347 

blowing  over  it.  This  causes  the  carbon  of  the  pig  iron  to 
unite  with  air  which  is  rushing  in  at  the  tuyeres,  and  pass 
away  as  carbonic-oxide  gas.  Whatever  silicon  is  present 
unites  with  the  oxygen  and  forms  silica,  and  the  oxj'gen 
uniting  with  the  iron  forms  the  oxide.  The  silica  of  the 
sand  uniting  with  oxide  of  iron  produces  a  slag  of  silicate 
of  iron. 

After  the  metal  has  been  subjected  to  this  refining  pro- 
cess long  enough  to  have  parted  with  most  of  the  impuri- 
ties spoken  of,  it  is  run  out  into  a  cast-iron  bed  covered 
with  water,  where  it  quickly  cools,  as  water  is  kept  con- 
stantly flowing  over  it.  Being  only  partially  decarbonized 
by  this  process,  it  is  next  broken  into  pieces  of  suitable  size 
for  the  puddling  furnace.  The  loss  of  iron  by  the  process 
of  refining  amounts  to  about  10  per  cent. 

Puddling. means  a  further  refining  of  the  iron  after  it 
has  left  the  blast-refinery,  and  is  performed  in  a  reverbera- 
tory  furnace  or  ( pudd  ling-furnace/  the  sole  or  bed  of 
which  is  about  6  by  4  feet;  at  one  end  is  the  fireplace,  3 
feet  square.  The  body  of  the  furnace  is  divided  from  the 
fire  by  a  brick  bridge  ;  the  furthest  end  of  the  furnace  is 
contracted  to  18  inches  in  width,  where  it  joins  a  brick 
chimney  40  feet  high,  having  a  damper  at  the  top.  The 
bed  is  made  with  a  slight  incline  to  the  back,  where  a  rapid 
descent  is  made  to  the  bottom  of  the  chimney,  where  the 
'  floss-hole  '  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  slag 
or  cinder  which  forms  during  the  operation.  To  prevent 
the  direct  contact  of  the  fuel  with  the  iron  the  bridge  be- 
tween the  fireplace  and  the  bed  is  made  high.  The  fire- 
place is  provided  with  a  door  in  front  for  the  purpose  of 
firing  and  regulating,  another  one  being  also  provided  on 
the  working  side.  The  puddling  of  the  metal  is  done 
through  a  hole  in  the  side  directly  jigainst  the  bed  of  the 
furnace,  and  another  hole  of  larger  dimensions  is  provided 
for  charging  the  metal  and  cleaning  the  bed. 


348  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

White  pig  iron,  or  at  least  all  such  irons  as  have  their 
carbon  in  a  combined  state,  are  esteemed  best  for  pud- 
dling, because  they  become  pasty  during  the  operation, 
and  are  more  easily  worked  than  the  gray  irons,  which  have 
their  carbon  in  the  graphitic  state;  the  latter  class  of  irons 
do  not  become  pasty  previous  to  melting. 

All  districts  do  not  adopt  the  *  refining'  process  for  the 
production  of  wrought  iron,  and  in  others  they  do  not 
charge  the  puddling  furnace  exclusively  with  refined  iron; 
but  where  the  grades  of  wrought  iron  are  inferior,  the 
crude  iron  is  charged  in  the  pig  at  once  without  previous 
preparation  in  the  refinery  furnace. 

Puddling  is  accomplished  by  two  methods:  the  old  way, 
viz.,  'dry  puddling/  is  usually  adopted  for  the  iron  which 
has  been  previously  refined,  the  decarhurization  in  this 
case  being  produced  principally  by  a  strong  current  of 
air  rushing  through  the  furnace;  the  new  way,  viz.,  'wet 
puddling'  or  '  boiling/  is  a  process  by  which  the  oxidizing 
of  the  carbon  is  effected,  principally  by  hematite,  magnetic 
ore,  basic  slags,  and  other  materials  that  are  easily  reduci- 
ble, but  to  some  extent  by  the  air  also. 

With  some  slight  difference  from  local  and  other  circum- 
stances, the  processes  of  puddling  are  in  a  general  way  con- 
ducted as  follows  :  A  charge  of  about  500  Ibs.  of  iron,  along 
with  some  hammer  cinder  and  seals  of  iron,  is  placed  upon 
the  bed  of  the  furnace,  immediately  after  the  preceding 
charge  has  been  withdrawn.  If  the  furnace  is  in  good 
shape  and  working  well,  this  charge  will  be  melted  in 
about  half  an  hour;  it  is  then  subjected  to  a  vigorous  stir- 
ring up,  with  a  long  bar,  by  the  puddler  for  a  length  of 
time  until  it  begins  to  boil.  The  appearance  of  boiling  is 
caused  by  the  formation  and  escape  of  carbonic  oxide, 
which,  as  it  exudes  from  the  mass,  forms  innumerable  jets 
of  blue  flame  all  over  the  top  of  the  molten  mass.  By 
degrees,  as  the  carbon  of  the  pig  iron  becomes  more  and 


WROUGHT  OR  MALLEABLE  IRON.  349 

more  oxidized,  a  separation  of  the  malleable  iron  takes 
place,  in  the  form  of  pasty  balls;  these  being  worked  to- 
gether into  masses  of  about  80  pounds  in  weight  by  the 
operator,  he  at  once  lowers  his  damper  and  opens  the  door 
of  the  furnace;  these  balls  are  now  immediately  withdrawn 
and  conveyed  to  the  'squeezer'  or  hammer. 

Shingling  is  the  process  immediately  following  that  of 
puddling  or  boiling,  and  consists  in  first  passing  the  balls 
through  a  revolving-toothed  machine,  which  receives  the 
puddled  balls,  as  they  are  drawn  soft  from  the  furnace, 
and  compresses  or  squeezes  them  till  the  greater  portion 
of  the  cinder  is  forced  out;  or  else  they  are  at  once 
hammered  under  the  helve  or  steam-hammer,  without 
the  preliminary  process  of  squeezing.  When  the  balls 
have  undergone  the  shingling  process  they  receive  the 
name  of  slabs  or  blooms,  and  are  now  ready  for  passing 
through  heavy  rollers,  which  for  this  purpose  are  termed 
'  forge'  or  ' puddle-bar'  rolls;  this  process  reduces  them 
to  the  form  of  flat  bars.  -When  it  is  required  to  make 
superior  grades  of  iron  these  flat  bars  are  subsequently  cut 
up  into  short  lengths,  and  are  then  placed  in  piles  and  re- 
heated in  a  furnace  provided  for  that  purpose,  and  again 
cut,  piled,  and  heated;  but  this  time  it  is  passed  through 
the  forge  rolls,  after  which  it  is  again  passed  through  the 
'  mill-train/  consisting  of  what  are  usually  termed  the 
'  bolting  '  or  '  roughing  rolls,'  and,  finally,  through  the  '  fin- 
ishing' rolls. 

When  plates  or  sheets  are  to  be  made,  the  rolls  are  plain; 
but  if  bars  are  required,  they  are  grooved  to  the  form  and 
dimensions  of  the  bars  required. 

Inferior  kinds  of  fuel  can  be  utilized  when  the  Siemens 
regenerative  furnace  is  employed  for  puddling  and  heat- 
ing. 


350  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


STEEL. 

STEEL  contains  carbon  in  proportions  varying  from  .5  to 
1.8  per  cent,  and  it  is  this  amount  of  carbon  that  makes 
the  difference  between  it  and  wrought  or  malleable  iron. 

Steel  resembles  cast  iron  very  much  in  appearance  when 
it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  carbon,  but  we  know  that 
it  does  not  contain  as  many  impurities. 

By  the  addition  of  carbon  during  the  direct  reduction  of 
pure  iron  ore  either  in  the  furnace  or  crucible,  steel  may 
be  made;  but  the  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  production  by 
this  means  is  against  the  general  adoption  of  this  method. 
Some  of  the  finest  kinds  of  steel  are  still  made  by  the  process 
of  '  Cementation/  which  indirect  method  is  to  first  convert 
the  cast  into  malleable  iron,  by  extracting  the  carbon  from 
the  former,  and  again  adding  carbon  by  a  process  of  heat- 
ing in  the  cernenting-furnace  after  the  manner  as  follows : 
A  cementing-furnace  is  provided  with  troughs,  supported 
beneath  the  arch  of  the  furnace  so  that  the  fire  may  have 
free  access  to  their  whole  exterior  surfaces.  Inside  these 
troughs  the  bar  iron  is  imbedded  in  charcoal,  being  ar- 
ranged in  tiers,  with  interposing  layers  of  charcoal,  so  that 
none  of  the  bars  come  in  contact.  After  the  troughs  have 
been  filled  as  described,  a  last  bed  of  charcoal  is  finally 
closed  over  with  fire-brick  covers  or  prepared  sand,  the 
heat  is  gradually  increased  within  the  furnace,  by  this 
means  infusing  the  solid  body  of  the  iron  with  more  or 
less  of  the  carbon  contained  in  the  charcoal.  The  heating 
is  kept  up  for  a  length  of  time,  according  to  the  quality  of 
steel  it  is  desired  to  make. 

The  bars  during  this  operation  undergo  a  very  remarka- 
ble change:  they  lose  their  toughness  and  become  brittle, 
their  whole  surface  being  covered  with  '  blisters/  supposed 


STEEL.  351 

to  be  due  to  the  evolution  of  carbonic  oxide  arising  from 
the  combination  of  carbon  with  a  trace  of  oxygen  existing 
in  the  iron.  It  is  as  important,  and  perhaps  more  difficult, 
to  rid  the  iron  of  its  silicon,  phosphorus,  and  sulphur,  than 
it  is  to  secure  a  certain  proportion  of  carbon  in  the  result- 
ant steel. 

Blistered  steel,  being  more  or  less  porous,  requires  to  be 
made  close  and  homogeneous  before  it  can  be  used  for  the 
many  purposes  to  which  a  fine  class  of  steel  is  necessary. 
One  of  the  methods  adopted  to  effect  this  object  is  to  con- 
vert the  cemented  bars  into  'shear  steel/  by  first  cutting 
the  former  into  short  pieces,  heating  in  the  furnace  in  con- 
venient stacks,  which  when  brought  to  a  welding  heat  are 
drawn  out  and  worked  under  the  forge  hammer.  By  this 
means  the  blister  steel  is  converted  into  a  more  malleable 
and  compact  bar,  suitable  for  edge-tools  and  kindred  uses. 
By  doubling  the  single-shear  steel  upon  itself  and  reheat- 
ing, and  again  subjecting  the  same  to  be  hammered  and 
drawn,  the  product  is  called  ' double-shear  steel.' 

Cast  steel  is  also  made  from  blister  steel,  by  melting  the 
latter  in  crucibles  and  casting  into  ingots.  The  finest  cut- 
ting instruments  are  made  from  this  product,  as  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  to  be  the  finest  and  best  class  of  steel 
made,  being  more  dense  than  any  of  the  others. 

Steel  is  largely  made  now  by  the  process  of  puddling, 
direct  from  the  pig  iron,  after  the  manner  of  making 
wrought  iron.  Another  process  is  to  granulate  the  pig 
iron,  and  add  in  the  crucible  oxides  of  iron,  manganese, 
and  fire-clay,  which  when  fused  together  produce  cast  steel. 

The  process  of  making  steel  by  the  Siemens-Martin 
method,  is  to  melt  pig  iron  with  a  certain  proportion  of 
wrought-iron  and  Bessemer- steel  scrap,  supplementing  the 
above  by  an  addition  of  about  7  per  cent  of  spiegeleisen. 
The  Siemens  regenerative  furnace  is  used  for  melting  with, 
in  this  instance.  ..  • 


3f)2  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

Bessemer  steel  is  made  by  driving  a  blast  of  air  through 
the  melted  iron,  and  continuing  the  operation  till  by  oxida- 
tion all  the  carbon  and  silicon  originally  in  the  pig  iron 
has  been  burned  out,  at  which  point  a  given  amount  of 
molten  spiegeleisen  is  added;  the  latter  containing  a  previ- 
ously ascertained  percentage  of  carbon,  permits  of  steel  be- 
ing made  by  this  means  with  any  desired  proportion  of 
carbon.  The  spiegeleisen  immediately  mixes  with  iron  in 
the  vessel,  and  restores  its  fluidity  in  a  wonderful  manner. 

How  steel  is  made  by  the  Bessemer  process  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows:  A  cupola  or  reverberatory  furnace 
is  used  for  melting  the  pig  iron,  which  when  sufficiently 
liquid  is  run  into  the  '  converter/  The  latter  vessel,  made 
of  wrought  iron,  is  suspended  on  trunnions,  which  allow 
it  to  be  turned  up  by  means  of  hydraulic  machinery.  The 
lining  of  these  converters  is  usually  fire-brick  or  ganister, 
and  their  capacity  may  be  2  or  12  tons.  The  seven  tuyeres 
at  the  bottom  have  each  a  number  of  perforations  about  J 
inch  in  diameter.  When  the  converter  is  in  operation  the 
blast  is  forced  through  these  perforated  tuyeres  at  a  press- 
ure of  about  20  pounds  per  square  inch,  which  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  molten  iron  from  penetrating  them. 

Whilst  the  air  is  being  blown  through  the  molten  iron 
for  the  purpose  of  burning  away  the  carbon  it  contains, 
the  mouth  of  the  converter  emits  showers  of  sparks,  with 
a  continuous  dazzling  flame,  until  the  operation  ends.  It 
takes  about  25  minutes  to  expel  all  the  carbon.  Usually 
this  is  termed  the  first  blow.  The  converter  is  now  low- 
ered, with  its  mouth  in  position  to  receive  the  molten 
spiegeleisen,  the  quantity  of  which  metal  is  in  proportion 
to  the  amount  of  carbon  required  in  the  whole  heat;  ;m- 
other  blow  through  for  a  short  time,  and  the  whole  is  thor- 
oughlv  mixed,  and  the  mass  has  become  cast  steel. 

The  ladle  for  pouring  the  ingots  is  attached  to  the  end 
of  a  long  arm  connecting  with  hydraulic  machinery  in  the 


ENAMEL  FOE  HEAVY  CASTINGS.  353 

centre  of  the  casting-pit.  The  latter  pit  is  generally  con- 
trived to  command  two  converters,  and  the  ingot  moulds 
are  placed  around  it  in  range  of  the  ladle  as  it  is  swung 
from  mould  to  mould  when  casting.  When  the  ladle  has 
been  brought  into  position  under  the  converter,  the  latter 
is  tilted  by  machinery  and  the  ladle  filled.  Then  the  pro- 
cess is  completed  by  filling  the  moulds  through  a  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  ladle,  controlled  by  a  lever  and  plug. 

As  soon  as  set,  the  moulds  are  removed,  and  the  ingots, 
whilst  red-hot,  are  at  once  conveyed  to  the  steam-hammer, 
which  by  repeated  heavy  blows  condenses  the  steel  to  the 
required  density. 


ENAMEL  FOR  HEAVY  CASTINGS,  PIPES,  ETC. 

CLEAN"  and  brighten  the  iron  before  applying.  The 
enamel  consists  of  two  coats, — the  body  and  the  glaze. 
The  body  is  made  by  fusing  100  Ibs.  of  ground  flints  and  75 
Ibs.  of  borax,  and  grinding  40  pounds  of  this  frit  with 
5  Ibs.  of  potter's  clay,  in  water,  till  it  is  brought  to  the 
consistence  of  a  pap.  A  coat  of  this  being  applied,  and 
dried,  but  not  hard,  the  glaze-powder  is  sifted  over  it. 
This  consists  of  100  Ibs.  of  Cornish  stone  in  fine  powder, 
117  Ibs.  of  borax,  35  Ibs.  of  soda-ash,  35  Ibs.  of  nitre,  35 
Ibs.  of  sifted  slaked  lime,  13  Ibs.  of  white  sand,  and  50  Ibs. 
of  pounded  white  glass.  These  arc  all  fused  together;  the 
frit  obtained  is  pulverized.  Of  this  powder,  45  Ibs.  are 
mixed  with  1  Ib.  of  soda-ash  in  hot  water,  and  the  mixture 
when  dried  in  a  stove  is  the  glaze-powder.  After  sifting 
this  over  the  body  coat,  the  cast-iron  article  is  put  into  a 
stove,  kept  at  a  temperature  of  212°,  to  dry  it  hard,  after 
which  it  is  set  in  a  muffle-kiln  to  fuse  it  into  a  glaze. 


354  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

The  inside  of  pipes  is  enamelled  (after  being  cleaned) 
by  pouring  the  above  'body'  composition  through  them 
while  the  pipe  is  being  turned  around  to  insure  an  equal 
coating ;  after  the  body  has  become  set,  the  glaze-pap  is 
poured  in  in  like  manner.  The  pipe  is  finally  fired  in  the 
kiln. 


BLACK  VARNISH  FOR  IRONWORK. 

ASPHALTUM,  1  lb. ;  lampblack,  J  Ib. ;  resin,  -J  Ib. ;  spirits 
of  turpentine,  1  quart;  linseed-oil,  just  sufficient  to  rub  up 
the  lampblack  with  before  mixing  it  with  the  others.  Ap- 
ply with  a  cameFs-hair  brush. 


GARNISHES  FOR  PIPES  AND  IRONWORK. 

COAL-TAB,  30  gallons;  tallow,  6  Ibs.;  resin,  1£  Ibs.; 
lampblack,  3  Ibs.;  fresh-slaked  lime  finely  sifted,  30  Ibs. 
Stir  all  thoroughly  together,  and  apply  hot. 

ANOTHER. 

Tar-oil,  20  Ibs.;  asphalturn,  5  Ibs.;  powdered  resin, 
5  Ibs.  Heat  all  together  in  an  iron  kettle,  but  be  very 
careful  to  avoid  ignition. 


VARNISH  FOR  PATTERNS. 

ALCOHOL,  1  gallon;  shellac  (best),  1  lb.;  lamp  or  ivory 
black,  sufficient  to  cover  it. 


355 


CLEAN  borings  or  TftTn1l1gs**t)icast  iron,  16  parts;  sal- 
ammoniac,  2  parts;  flour  of  sulphur,  1  part.  Mix  them 
well  together  in  a  mortar,  and  keep  them  dry. 

When  required  for  use,  take  of  the  mixture,  1  part; 
clean  borings,  20  parts.  Mix  thoroughly  and  add  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water.  A  little  grindstone  dust  added  improves 
the  cement. 


MINERAL  WOOL,  ETC. 

THE   PHENOMENA  OF  ITS   PRODUCTION   EXPLAINED. 

THE  somewhat  peculiar  and  strange  phenomena  some- 
times noticed  when  the  iron  has  bc>en  nearly  all  melted 
down  in  the  cupola,  and  which  consists  of  a  fibrous  sub- 
stance very  much  resembling  wool,  is  formed  in  the  cupola 
when  the  blast  impinges  on  the  surface  of  molten  slag 
within,  the  latter  being,  by  this  action,  blown  into  filaments 
of  a  glassy  fibrous  nature. 

The  manufactured  article  is  used  as  a  non-conductor  to 
prevent  freezing  in  water-pipes,  etc.  The  method  of 
making  it  in  some  of  the  iron-smelting  districts  is  as  fol- 
lows: The  pig-iron  furnace  is  provided  with  a  tap  an  inch 
in  diameter,  out  of  which  a  continual  stream  of  slag  is 
allowed  to  flow,  and  to  fall  a  distance  of  30  inches,  at 
which  point  the  falling  stream  is  met  by  a  strong  blast  of 
cold  air,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  separate  the  slag  into 
myriads  of  hair-like  threads,  as  white  as  snow,  resembling 
the  finest  wool. 


356  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


TO   DISTINGUISH  WROUGHT   AND  CAST   IRON 
FROM  STEEL. 

EISNER  produces  a  bright  surface  by  polishing  or  filing, 
and  applies  a  drop  of  nitric  acid,  which  is  allowed  to 
remain  there  for  one  or  two  minutes  and  is  then  washed 
off  with  water.  The  spot  will  then  appear  a,  pale  ashy  gray 
on  wrought  iron,  a  brownish  black  on  steel,  and  a  deep  black 
on  cast  iron.  It  is  the  carbon  present  in  various  propor- 
tions which  produces  the  different  appearances. 


TINNING. 

1st.  PLATES  or  vessels  of  brass  or  copper,  boiled  with  a 
solution  of  stannate  of  potassa  mixed  with  turnings  of 
tin,  become,  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes,  covered  with  a 
firmly  attached  layer  of  pure  tin. 

2d.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  boiling  the  articles 
with  tin  filings  and  caustic  alkali  or  cream  of  tartar.  In 
the  above  way  chemical  vessels  made  of  copper  or  brass 
may  be  easily  and  perfectly  tinned. 


NEW  TINNING  PROCESS. 

THE  articles  to  be  tinned  are  first  covered  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  and  when  quite  clean  are  placed  in  warm 
water,  then  dipped  in  a  solution  of  muriatic  acid,  copper, 
and  zinc,  and  then  plunged  into  a  tin  bath  to  which  a 


CRTSTALLIZKD  TIN  PLATE.  357 

small  quantity  of  zinc  has  been  added.  When  the  tinning 
is  finished  the  articles  are  taken  out  and  plunged  into 
boiling  water.  The  operation  is  completed  by  placing 
them  in  a  very  warm  sand-bath.  This  last  process  softens 
the  iron. 


KUSTITIENS  METAL  FOE  TINNING. 

MALLEABLE  iron,  l.lb.;   heat  to  whiteness.    Add  5  oz. 
regulus  of  antimony,  and  Molucca  tin,  24  Ibs. 


CRYSTALLIZED  TIN   PLATE. 

CRYSTALLIZED  tin  plate  is  a  variegated  primrose  appear- 
ance, produced  upon  the  surface  of  tin  plate  by  applying  to 
it,  in  a  heated  state,  some  dilute  nitre-muriatic  acid  for  a 
few  seconds,  then  washing  it  with  water,  dry  ing,  and  coating 
it  with  lacquer.  The  figures  are  more  or  k-ss  beautiful  and 
diversified,  according  to  the  degree  of  heat  and  relative 
dilution  of  the  acid* 

Place  the  tin  plate,  slightly  heated,  over  a  tub  of  water, 
and  rub  its  surface  witli  a  sponge  dipped  in  a  liquor  com- 
posed of  four  parts  of  aqua  fortis  and  two  of  distilled  water, 
holding  one  part  of  common  salt  or  sal-ammoniac  in 
solution.  Whenever  the  crystalline  spangles  seem  to  be 
thoroughly  brought  out,  the  plate  must  be  immersed  in 
water,  washed  either  with  a  feather  or  a  little  cotton  (tak- 
ing care  not  to  rub  off  the  film  of  tin  that  forms  the 
feathering),  forthwith  dried  at  a  low  heat,  and  coated  with 
a  lacquer  varnish;  otherwise  it  loses  its  lustre  in  the  air. 

If  the  whole   surface  is  not  plunged  at  once  in  cold 


358  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

water,  but  if  it  be  partially  cooled  by  sprinkling  water  on 
it,  the  crystallization  will  be  finely  variegated  with  large 
and  small  figures.  Similar  results  will  be  obtained  by 
blowing  cold  air  through  a  pipe  on  the  tinned  surface 
while  it  is  just  passing  from  the  fused  to  the  solid  state. 


TO   TIN  IRON  POTS  AND   OTHER  DOMESTIC 
ARTICLES. 

THE  articles  are  cleaned  with  sand  and,  if  necessary, 
with  acid,  and  put  in  a  bath  prepared  with  1  oz  cream 
of  tartar,  1  oz.  tin  salt  (protochloride  of  tin),  10  qts. 
of  water.  This  bath  must  be  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
190°  Fahr.,  in  a  stone-ware  or  wooden  tank.  Bits  of 
metallic  zinc  are  put  into  and  between  the  different  pieces. 
When  the  coat  of  tin  is  considered  thick  enough,  the 
articles  are  taken  out  of  the  fluid,  washed  with  water,  and 
dried. 


TO  TIN  CAST-IRON  STUDS  AND  C1IAPLETS. 

PICKLE  the  castings  (or  studs)  in  oil  of  vitriol,  then  cover 
or  immerse  them  in  muriate  of  zinc  (made  by  putting  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  zinc  in  some  spirit  of  salt);  after 
which  dip  them  in  a  melted  bath  of  tin  or  solder. 

Wrought  chaplets  are  treated  in  the  same  way. 


CASE-HARDENING  CAST  IRON. 

1st.  CAST  iron  may  be  case-hardened  by  heating  to  a  red 
heat,  and  then  rolling  it  in  a  composition  composed  of 


TO  SCALE,    CLEAN,    OR  PICKLE  CAST  IRON.    359 

equal  parts  of  prnssiate  of  potash,  sal-ammoniac,  and  salt- 
petre, all  pulverized  and  thoroughly  mixed.  This  must  be 
applied  to  every  part  of  the  surface,  then  plunged,  while  yet 
hot,  into  a  bath  containing  2  oz.  prussiute  of  potash  and  4 
oz.  sal-ammoniac  to  each  gallon  of  cold,  water. 

2d.  Suit,  2  Ibs.;  saltpetre,  £  lb.;  rock  alum,  \  lb.;  am- 
monia, 4  oz.;  salts  of  tartar,  4  oz.  Pulverize  all  together 
and  incorporate  thoroughly.  Use  by  powdering  all  over 
the  iron  while  it  is  red-hot,  then  plunging  it  in  cold  water. 


TO  CHILL  CAST  IRON  VERY  HARD. 

USE  a  liquid  made  as  follows:  Soft  water,  10  gals.;  salt, 
1  peck;  oil  of  vitriol,  \  pint;  saltpetre,  \  lb.;  prussiate  of 
potash,  J  lb.;  cyanide  of  potash,  \  lb.  Heat  the  iron  a 
cherry-red,  and  dip  as  usual;  if  wanted  harder,  repeat  the 
process. 


TO  SOFTEN  CAST  IRON. 

STEEP  it  in  1  part  of  aqua  fortis  to  4  parts  of  water,  and 
let  it  remain  in  24  hours. 


TO  SCALE,  CLEAN,    OR  PICKLE   CAST  IRON. 

VITRIOL,  1  part ;  water,  2  parts.     Mix  and  lay  on  with  a 
facile,  or  cloth  tied  in  the  form  of  a  brush,  enough  to  wet 
the  surface  well;  after  8  or  10  hours  wash  off  with  water. 


360  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


TO  REMOVE  RUST  FROM    CAST  OR   WROUGHT 

IRON. 

WE  have  never  seen  any  iron  so  badly  sealed  or  incrnsted 
with  oxide  that  it  could  not  be  cleaned  with  a  solution  of 
1  part  sulphuric  acid  in  10  parts  water.  Paradoxical  as  it 
may  seem,  strong  sulphuric  acid  will  not  attack  iron  with 
anything  like  the  energy  of  a  solution  of  the  same.  On 
withdrawing  the  articles  from  the  acid  solution  they  should 
be  dipped  in  a  bath  of  hot  lime-water,  and  held  there  till 
they  become  so  heated  that  they  will  dry  immediately 
when  taken  out.  Then  if  they  are  rubbed  with  dry  bran 
or  sawdust,  there  will  be  an  almost  chemically  clean  sur- 
face left,  to  which  zinc  will  adhere  readily. 


TO  SCOUR  CAST  IRON,  ZINC,  OR  BRASS. 

CAST-IRON,  zinc,  and  brass  surfaces  can  be  scoured  with 
great  economy  of  labor,  time,  and  material  by  using  either 
glycerine,  stearine,  naphthaline,  or  creosote,  mixed  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid. 


TO  SOLDER  GRAY  CAST  IRON. 

FIRST  dip  the  castings  in  alcohol,  after  which  sprinkle 
muriate  of  ammonia  (sal-nmmoniac)  over  the  surface  to  be 
soldered.  Then  hold  the  casting  over  a  charcoal  fire  till 
the  sal-ammoniac  begins  to  smoke;  then  dip  it  into  melted 
tin  (not  solder).  This  prepares  the  metal  for  soldering, 
which  can  be  clone  in  the  usual  way. 


BRASSING  CAST  IRON.  361 


TO   DEPOSIT   COPPER  UPON   CAST   IRON. 

THE  pieces  of  cast  iron  are  first  placed  in  a  bath  made  of 
50  parts  hydrochloric  acid,  specific  gravity  of  1.105,  and  1 
part  nitric  acid;  next  in  a  second  bath,  composed  of  10 
parts  nitric  acid,  10  parts  of  chloride  of  copper  dissolved  in 
80  parts  of  the  same  hydrochloric  acid  as  just  alluded  to. 
The  objects  are  rubbed  with  a  woollen  rag'  and  soft  brush, 
next  washed  with  water,  and  again  immersed  nntil  the 
desired  thickness  of  copper  is  deposited.  When  it  is 
desired  to  give  the  appearance  of  bronze,  the  copper  sur- 
face is  rubbed  with  a  mixture  of  4  parts  sal-ammoniac  and 
1  part  each  of  oxalic  and  acetic  acids  dissolved  in  30  parts 
of  water. 


TO  BRONZE  IRON  CASTINGS. 

IRON  castings  may  be  bronzed  by  thorough  cleansing  and 
subsequent  immersion  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper, 
when  they  acquire  a  coat  of  the  latter  metal.  They  must 
be  then  washed  in  water. 


BRASSING   CAST  IRON. 

IRON  ornaments  are  covered  with  copper  or  brass  by 
properly  preparing  the  surface  of  the  castings  so  as  to 
remove  all  organic  matter  which  would  prevent  adhesion 
(described  elsewhere),  and  then  plunging  them  into  melted 
brass.  A  thin  coating  is  thus  spread  over  the  iron,  and  it 
admits  of  being  polished  or  burnished. 


362  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


GREEN  BRONZE  ON  CASTINGS. 

COAT  the  surface  of  the  iron  (first  cleaned  by  acid  and 
well  etched)  with  ferrocyanide  of  copper  applied  with  lin- 
seed-oil. Before  this  coating  is  entirely  dry  apply  bronze 
powder  by  means  of  a  fine  brush,  and  then  polish  with  a 
burnisher.  When  the  surface  is  entirely  dry,  wash  and 
etch  to  the  color  desired.  The  use  of  the  alkaline  sul- 
phides for  the  etching  produces  olive-green  and  black 
colors,  which  closely  resemble  those  of  the  Japanese 
bronzes. 


BRONZE  FOR    CAST  IRON  WITHOUT  THE  USE 
OF  METAL   OR  ALLOY. 

THE  article  is  cleansed,  coated  with  a  uniform  film  of 
some  vegetable  oil,  and  then  is  exposed  in  a  furnace  to  the 
action  of  a  high  temperature,  which,  however,  must  not  be 
strong  enough  to  carbonize  the  oil.  In  this  way  the  cast 
iron  absorbs  oxygen  at  the  moment  the  oil  is  decomposed, 
and  there  is  formed  at  the  surface  a  thin  coat  of  brown 
oxide,  which  adheres  very  strongly  to  the  metal,  arid  will 
admit  of  a  high  polish,  giving  it  quite  the  appearance  of 
fine  bronze. 


TO   GALVANIZE  GRAY- IRON  CASTINGS. 

FIRST  cleanse  the  castings  in  an  ordinary  tumbling-barrel 
in  the  usual  manner.     When  the  sand  has  been  all  removed. 


JAPANNING   CASTINGS.  363 

take  them  out  and  heat  one  by  one,  plunging,  while  hot, 
in  a  liquid  composed  as  follows  :  10  pounds  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  sufficient  sheet  zinc  to  make  a  saturated  solution. 
In  making  this  solution,  when  the  evolution  of  gas  has 
ceased,  add  muriate  or  preferably  sulphate  of  ammonia,  1 
pound,  and  let  it  stand  till  dissolved.  The  castings  should 
be  so  hot  that  when  dipped  in  this  solution  and  instantly 
removed  they  will  immediately  dry,  leaving  the  surface 
crystallized,  like  frostwork  on  a  window-pane.  Next 
plunge  them  while  hot  and  perfectly  dry  in  a  bath  of 
melted  zinc,  previously  skimming  the  oxide  on  the  surface 
away,  and  throwing  thereon  a  small  amount  of  sal-ammo- 
niac. If  the  articles  are  very  small,  enclose  them  in  a 
wronght-iron  basket  on  a  pole,  and  lower  them  into  the 
metal.  When  this  is  done,  shake  off  the  superfluous  metal 
and  cast  them  into  a  vessel  of  water  to  prevent  them  adher- 
ing when  the  zinc  solidifies. 


TO  GALVANIZE  CAST  IRON  THROUGH. 

To  50  Ibs.  of  melted  iron  add  1  Ib.  of  pulverized  pure 
zinc.  Scatter  the  zinc-powder  well  over  the  ladle,  then 
catch  the  melted  iron  (hot),  stir  it  well  up  with  an  iron 
rod  quickly,  and  pour  at  once. 


JAPANNING  CASTINGS. 

CLEAN  them  well  from  the  sand,  then  dip  them-  in  or 
paint  them  over  with  good  boiled  linseed-oil;  when  moder- 
ately dry,  heat  them  in  an  oven  to  such  a  temperature  as 


364  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

will  turn  the  oil  black  without  burning.  The  stove  should 
not  be  too  hot  at  first,  and  the  heat  should  be  gradually 
raised  to  avoid  blistering;  the  slower  the  change  iu  the  oil 
is  effected  the  better  will  be  the  result. 

The  castings,  if  smooth  at  first,  will  receive  a  fine  black 
and  polished  surface  by  this  method. 


TO  ENAMEL  CAST  IRON  AND  HOLLOW  WARE. 

1st.  CALCINED  flints,  G  parts;  Cornish  stone  or  compo- 
sition, 2  parts;  litharge,  9  parts;  borax,  6  parts;  argil- 
laceous earth,  1  part;  nitre,  1  part;  calx  of  tin,  6  parts; 
purified  potash,  1  part. 

2d.  Calcined  flints,  8  parts;  red  lead,  8  parts;  borax,  6 
parts;  calx  of  tin,  5  parts;  nitre,  1  part. 

3d.  Potter's  com  position,  12  parts;  borax,  8  parts;  white 
lead,  10  purts;  nitre,  2  parts;  white  marble,  calcined, 
1  part;  purified  potash,  2  parts;  calx  of  tin,  5  parts. 

4th.  Calcined  flints,  4  parts;  potter's  composition,  1  part; 
nitre,  2  parts;  borax,  8  parts;  white  marble,  calcined, 
1  part;  argillaceous  earth,  -|  part;  calx  of  tin,  2  parts. 

Whichever  of  the  above  compositions  is  taken  must  be 
finely  powdered,  mixed,  and  fused.  When  cold  the  vitreous 
mass  is  to  be  ground,  sil'ted,  and  levigated  (rubbed  to  a  fine 
impalpable  powder)  with  water;  it  is  then  made  into  a  pap 
with  water,  or  gum-water. 

The  pap  is  smeared  or  brushed  over  the  surface  of  the 
articles,  dried,  and  fused  with  a  proper  heat  in  a  muffle. 
Clean  the  articles  perfectly  before  applying  the  pap. 


USEFUL  INTEREST  RULES.  365 


USEFUL  INTEREST  RULES. 

FOB  finding  the  interest  on  any  principal  for  any  num- 
ber of  days.  The  answer  in  each  case  being  in  cents, 
separate  the  two  right-hand  figures  of  the  answer  to 
express  it  in  dollars  and  cents. 

FIVE  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  and 
divide  by  72. 

Six  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  separate 
the  right-hand  figure,  and  divide  by  6. 

EIGHT  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  and 
divide  by  45. 

NINE  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  sep- 
arate the  right-hand  figure,  and  divide  by  4. 

TEN  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days,  and 
divide  by  35. 

TWELVE  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days, 
separate  the  right-hand  figure,  and  divide  by  3. 

FIFTEEN  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days, 
and  divide  by  24. 

EIGHTEEN  PER  CENT. — Multiply  by  the  number  of  days, 
separate  the  right-band  figure,  and  divide  by  2. 

TWENTY  PER  CENT.— Multiply  by  the  number  of  days, 
and  divide  by  18. 


366 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


INTEREST  TABLE, 

AT  Six  PER  CENT,  IN  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS,  PROM  ONE 
DOLLAR  TO  TEN  THOUSAND. 


Iday. 

7  days. 

15  days. 

1  month. 

3  months. 

6  months. 

12  mos. 

$ 

$    c 
00 

00 

Sft 

$    c 
00* 

$    c 
01* 

$    c 
03 

•a 

2 

00 

00} 

00* 

01 

03 

(»6 

12 

3 

00 

OOi 

00} 

01* 

04* 

09 

18 

4" 

00    . 

•     ,  '    00*: 

01 

02 

06 

12 

24 

5 

00 

00*, 

OH 

02* 

o:* 

15 

30 

6 

'•     oo 

00} 

01* 

03 

09 

18 

36 

A> 

00 

00} 

01} 

03* 

10* 

21 

42 

8 

00 

01 

02 

04 

I* 

24 

48 

9 

00 

01 

O^J 

04* 

13* 

27 

54 

10 

00 

OH 

02* 

05 

15 

30 

GO 

20 

00* 

02* 

05 

10 

80 

60 

1  20 

30 

00* 

03i 

07* 

15 

45 

90 

1  80 

40 

00} 

04* 

10 

20 

60 

1  20 

2  40 

50 

01 

06 

12* 

25 

75 

1  50 

8  00 

100 

01* 

11} 

25 

50 

1  50 

3  00 

6  00 

200 

03 

23* 

50 

1  00 

3  00 

6  00 

12  00 

300 

05 

35 

75 

1  50 

4  50 

9  00 

18  00 

400 

07 

46* 

1  00 

2  00 

6  00 

Is!  00 

24  00 

500 

08 

58* 

1  25 

2  50 

7  50 

15  00 

30  00 

1,000 

17 

1   16* 

8  50 

5  00 

15  (X) 

30  00 

60  00 

2.000 

33 

233* 

5  00 

10  00 

30  00 

CO  00 

120  00 

3.0'  )0 

50 

3  50 

7  50 

15  00 

45  00 

90  00 

!80  00 

4,000 

67 

4  <5H* 

10  00 

20  00 

60  00 

120  00 

2->0  00 

5.000 

as 

5  83* 

1-2  50 

25  00 

75  00 

150  00 

300  00 

10,OJO 

1  67 

11  66* 

25  00 

50  00 

150  00 

300  00 

600  00 

AT  SEVEN  PER  CENT,  IN  DOLLARS  AND  CENTS,  FROM  ONE  DOLLAR  TO  TEN 
THOUSAND. 


1 

00 

00 

004, 

00* 

01} 

03* 

07 

2 

00 

OOi 

00* 

OH 

OS* 

07 

14 

3 

00 

00* 

00} 

01} 

OM 

10* 

21 

4 

00 

00* 

01 

02* 

07 

14 

28 

5 

00 

00| 

01* 

03 

08} 

17* 

3) 

6 

00 

00} 

01} 

03* 

10* 

21 

42 

7 

00 

01 

02 

04 

12} 

24* 

49 

8 

00 

01 

O'-'i 

041 

14 

W 

M 

9 

00 

OH 

0-4 

051 

!•>} 

31* 

63 

10 
20 

00} 
OM 

OH 

0.'} 

03 
06 

05} 
113 

JP 

35 
70 

70 
1  40 

30 

00* 

01 

03 

17* 

5-J* 

1  05 

2  10 

40 

00} 

05* 

12 

23§ 

70 

1  40 

2  SO 

50 

01 

06} 

15 

87* 

1  75 

3  50 

100 

02 

13* 

29 

58§ 

1  75 

3  r.O 

7  00 

200 

01 

274, 

58 

1  1«1 

3  50 

7  00 

14  00 

300 

06 

40} 

87* 

1  75 

5  -<!5 

10  50 

21  00 

400 
500 

08 
10 

54* 
08 

1  17 
1  46 

2  33* 
2  913 

7  00 
8  75 

14  00 
17  50 

28  00 
35  00 

1,000 

19* 

1  36 

2  92 

5  83* 

17  50 

85  00 

70  00 

2.000 

39 

2  7','i 

5  83 

11  66] 

35  00 

70  00 

140  00 

3.(x-o 

58 

4  08* 

8  75 

17  50 

52  50 

105  00    210  CO 

4.000 

78 

5  44* 

11  67 

23  :-.3* 

70  00 

140  00 

280  00 

5.000 

97 

6  HO* 

14  58 

29  Hi? 

87  50 

175  00 

350  00 

10,000 

1  94 

13  61 

29  17 

58  S3 

175  00 

350  00 

700  00 

PRCFCCTY  OF  ° 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  367 


WEIGHTS  AND   MEASURES. 

MEASURES   OF   LENGTH 

4  In.  make  1  Hand. 
7. 92  In.       "     1  Link 
18  In.       "     1  Cubi 
12  In.       "     I  Too 

6  Ft.       "     1  Fat 

3  Ft.       "     1  Yard. 
5 1  Yds.     "     1  Rod  or 
40  Poles  "     1  Furlong. 

8  Fur.     "     1  Mile. 
69T^  Miles  "     1  Degree. 

60  Geographical  Miles  make  1  Degree. 

SCRIPTURE   LENGTHS. 

The  great  Cubit  was  21.888  in.  =  1.824  ft.,  and  the  less 
18  in.  A  Span  the  longer  =  -J  a  cubit  =  10.944  in.  =  .912 
ft.  A  Span  the  less  =  J  of  a  cubit  =  7.296  in.  =  COS  ft. 
A  Hand's  Breadth  =  £  of  a  cubit  =  3.684  in.  =  .304  ft.  A 
Finger's  Breadth  —  1.24  of  a  cubit  =  .912  in.  =  .070  ft.  A 
Fathom  =  4  cubits  =  7.296  ft.  Ezekiel's  Reed  =  6  cubits 
=  10.944  ft.  The  Mile  =  4000  cubits  =  7296  ft.  The 
Stadium,  ^  of  their  mile  =  400  cubits  =  729.6  ft.  The 
Parasung,  3  of  their  miles  =  12,000  cubits,  or  4  English 
miles  and  580  ft.  33.164  miles  was  a  day's  journey — some 
say  24  miles;  and  3500  ft.  a  Sabbath  day's  journey — some 
authorities  say  3648  ft. 


LIQUID   MEASURE. 


4  Gills  make  1  Pint. 
2  Pints     "      1  Quart. 
4  Quarts"      1  Gallon. 


2  Gals,  make  1  Peck. 
31 J  Gals.      "      1  Barrel. 
54    Gals.     "      1  Hhd. 


368  2 HE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

SCRIPTURE  MEASURES   OF   CAPACITY. 

The  Chomer  or  Homer  in  King  James'  translation  was 
75.625  gals,  liquid,  and  32.125  pecks  dry.  The  Ephah  or 
Bath  was  7  gals.  4  pts.,  15  in.  sol.  The  Seah,  -|-  of  ephah, 
2  gals.  4  pts.,  3  in.  sol.  The  Hin  =  £  of  ephah,  1  gal.,  2 
pts.,  1  in.  sol.  The  Omer  =  -fa  of  ephah,  5  pts.,  0.5  in.  sol. 
The  Cab  =  ^  of  ephah,  3  pts.  10  in.  sol.  The  Log  =  7^. 
of  ephah,  J  pt.,  10  in.  sol.  The  Metretes  of  Syria  (John  ii. 
6)  =  Cong.  Rom.  7|  pts.  The  Cotyla  Eastern  =  ^  of 
ephah,  J  pt.  3  in.  sol.  This  cotyia  contains  just  10  oz. 
Avoirdupois  of  rain-water.  Omer,  100;  Ephah,  1000;  Cho- 
mer or  Homer,  10,000. 

MEASURES   OF   SURFACE. 

144  Square  Inches  make  1  Square  Foot. 
9  Square  Feet          "     1  Square  Yard. 
30|  Square  Yards       "     1  Rod,  Perch,  or  Pole. 
40  Square  Rods         "     1  Square  Rood. 

4  Square  Roods       "     1  Square  Acre,  or  43,560  sq.  ft. 
10  Square  Chains      "     1  Square  Acre. 
640  Square  Acres        "     1  Square  Mile. 

Gunter's  Chain  equal  to  22  Yards  or  100  Links. 

GUTTER'S  CHAIN,  ETC. 

7.92  inches  constitute  1  link;  100  links  one  chain,  4  rods 
or  poles,  or  66  feet,  and  80  chains  1  mile.  A  square  chain 
is  16  square  poles,  and  10  square  chains  are  1  acre.  Four 
roods  are  an  acre,  each  containing  1210  square  yards,  or 
34,785  yards,  or  84  yards  28  inches  each  side. 

Forty  poles  of  30.25  square  yards  each  is  a  rood,  and  a 
pole  is  5J  yards  each  way. 

An  acre  is  4840  square  yards,  or  69  yds.  1  ft.  8-J.  in. 
each  way;  and  2  acres,  or  9680  square  yards,  are  98  yds.  1 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 


ft.  2  in.  each  way;  and  3  acres  are  120 1  yds.  each  way.  A 
square  mile,  or  a  U.  S.  section  of  land,  is  640  acres;  being 
10GO  yds.  each  way ;  half  a  mile,  or  880  yds.  each  way,  is 
160  acres;  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  or  440  yds.  each  way,  is  a 
park  or  farm  of  40  acres;  and  a  furlong,  or  220  yds.  each 
way,  10  acres. 

Any  length  or  breadth  in  yards  which,  multiplied,  makes 
4840,  is  an  acre;  any  which  makes  12.10  is  a  rood,  and  30.25 
is  a  pole. 

An  English  acre  is  a  square  of  nearly  70  yds.  each  way; 
a  Scotch,  of  77£  yds.;  and  an  Irish,  of  88 \  yds. 

MEASURES   OF   SOLIDITY. 

1728  Cubic  Inches  make  1  Cubic  Foot. 
27  Cubic  Feet         "     1  Cubic  Yard. 

AVOIRDUPOIS   WEIGHT. 

27  JJ  Grains  make  1  Drachm  (dr.)  or  27JJ  Grains. 
16  Drachms  "     1  Ounce  (oz.)  or  43 7£          " 
10  Ounces      "     1  Pound  (Ib.)  or  7000          « 
28  Pounds     "     1  Quarter  (qr.). 

4  Quarters  "     1  Hundred-weight  (cwt.). 
20  Cwts.        "     1  Ton. 

TROY   WEIGHT. 

24  Grains      make  1  Pennyweight,  or     24  Grains. 
20  Pennyw'ts     "     1  Ounce,  or   480         " 

12  Ounces          "     1  Pound,  or  5760        " 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 


20  Grains   make  1  Scruple. 
3  Scruples     "     1  Drachm. 


8  Drachms  make  1  Ounce. 
12  Ounces         "     1  Pound. 


45  Drops  —  1  teaspoonful,  or  a  fluid  Drachm; 
2  tables  noon  fuls  =  1  oz. 


370  THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 

DRY   MEASURE. 

8  Quarts   make  1  Peck. 

4  Pecks         "     1  Bushel. 

8  Bushels      "    1  Quarter. 
36  Bushels      "     1  Chaldron. 
1  Bushel  equal  to  2815J  cu.  in.  nearly. 
A  bushel  of  Wheat  is  on  an  average  60  Ibs.;  Barley  or 
Buckwheat,  46  Ibs.;  Indian  Corn  or  Rye,  56  Ibs.;  Oats,  30 
Ibs.;  Salt,  70  Ibs.     14  Ibs.  of  Lead  or  Iron  make  1  Stone; 
21%  stone,  1  Pig.     1  Bbl.  of  Flour  contains  196  Ibs.;  Beef 
or  Pork,  200  Ibs.     The  Imperial  Gallon  is  10  Ibs.  avoirdu- 
pois of  pure  water;  the  Pint,  1£  Ibs.     1  gal.  Sperm  Oil 
weighs  7£  Ibs.;  1  gal.  of  Whale  Oil,  7  Ibs.  11  oz. ;  1  gal.  of 
Linseed,  7f  Ibs.;  1  gal.  of  Olive,  7|  Ibs.;  1  gal.  of  Spirits 
of  Turpentine,  7  Ibs.  5  oz.     Proof-spirits,  7  Ibs.  15  oz.;  1 
gal.  of  Ale,  10.5  Ibs. 


FRENCH  MEASURES. 
MEASURES   OF   LENGTH. 
English  Inches. 

Millemetre     .     .  .039371. 

Centimetre    .    .  .39371. 

Decimetre      .     .  3.9371. 

Metre    ....          39.371,  or  3.281  ft.,  or  1.09364  yds., 

or  nearly  1  yd.,  1|  nail,  or 
443.2959  French  lines,  or 
.513074  toises. 

Decametre      .     .         393.71,  or  10  yds.,  2  ft.,  97  inches. 
Hocatometre  ,     .       3937.1,  or  100  yds.,  1  ft.,  1  in. 
Chiliometre    .     .     39371,  or  4  fur.,  213  yds.,  1  ft.,  10.2  in.; 

so  that  1  chiliometre  is  nearly 
f  of  a  mile. 

Myriometre     .     .  393710,  or  6  miles,  1  fur.,  136  yds.,  6  in. 
An  inch  =  .0354  metres;  2441  in.  =  62  metres;  10,000 
ft.  =  305  metres  nearly. 


FRENCH  MEASURES.  371 

SUPERFICIAL   OR   SQUARE   MEASURE. 

Are— a  square  decametre  3.95  English  perches,  of  119.6046 

sq.  yds. 

Decare   ....       1196.0460  sq.  yds. 
Hecutare     .     .     .     11960.46  sq.  yds.,  or  2  acres,  1  rood, 

35.4  perches. 

MEASURES   OF   CAPACITY. 
Cubic  Inches.  English. 

Millilitre .06103. 

Centilitre      ....  .61028. 

Decilitre 6.1028. 

Litre,  a  cubic  decimetre          61.028,  or  2.113  wine  pints. 
Decalitre  .....  610.28,  or  2.64  wine  gals. 

Hecatoliti-e  .     .     .     .          6102.8,  or  3.5317  cu.  ft.,  or  26.4 

wine  gals. 
Chiliolitre     ....    61028,  or  35.3170  cu.  ft.,  or  1  tun, 

12  wine  gals. 
Myriolitre      ....  610280,  or  353.1700  cu.  ft. 

SOLID   MEASURE. 

Cubic  Feet,  English. 

Decistre  for  fire-wood 3. 53 17. 

Stere,  a  cubic  metre 35.3170. 

Decustre 353.1700. 

•  In  order  to  express  decimal  proportions  in  this  new  sys- 
tem, the  following  terms  have  been  adopted:  The  term 
deca  prefixed  denotes  10  times;  hecctf  100  times;  cltilio,  1000 
times;  and  myrw,  10,000  times.  On  the  other  hand,  dcci 
expresses  the  10th  part;  centi,ihe  100th  part;  and  willi,  the 
1000th  part, — so  that  decametre  signifies  10  metres,  mid 
decimetre  the  10th  part  of  a  metre,  etc.,  etc.  The  metre  is 
the  element  of  long  measures;  are,  that  of  square  measures; 
stere,  that  of  solid  measures;  the  litre  is  the  element  of  all 
measures  of  capacity;  and  the  gramme,  which  is  the  weight 
of  a  cubic  centimetre  of  distilled  water,  is  the  element  for 
all  weights. 


372 


THE  IRON-FOUNDER  SUPPLEMENT. 


TABLE  OF  THE  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES  AND  OF  THE 
SIDES  OF  SQUARES  OF  THE  SAME  AREA. 


Diam.  of 
Cirole  i?i 
Indies. 

A  rea  of 
Circle  in 
Sq.  In. 

Sides  of  Sq. 
of  s-une  Area 
in  Sq.  In. 

I)  bun.  of 
Circle  in 
Inches. 

Area  of 
Circle  in 
Sq.  In. 

Sides  of  Sq. 
of  same  Area 
in  Sq.  In. 

1 

.7*5 

.89 

31 

751.77 

27.47 

i 

i.76r 

1.33 

i 

779.31 

27  92 

3 

3.142 

1.77 

33 

804  25 

28  '.36 

| 

4.909 

2.22 

£ 

829.58 

28  HO 

3 

7.0(59 

2.66 

33 

855  30 

29  25 

i 

9  521 

3.10 

i 

881.41 

29.09 

4 

1-2  566 

8  54 

34 

907  9-2 

30.13 

i 

15.904 

3.99 

i 

934.82 

30  57 

5 

19.655 

4  43 

35 

9(5-2.11 

31.0-j 

i 

23.753 

4.87 

I 

9-9  80 

81  46 

6 

2s  ->74 

5.32 

36 

10I7.H8 

31.90 

4- 

8I.1R1 

5  76 

k 

1046  35 

32  35 

7" 

33.4S5 

6.20 

37 

1075.21 

3-2.79 

i 

44.179 

6  65 

i 

1101  47 

88.28 

8 

50.2(5(5 

7.09 

38 

1134.12 

33.  G8 

i 

fif5.  7  45 

7.53 

i 

11(54.16 

34  12 

9 

68.617 

7.98 

39 

1194.59 

34.56 

£ 

70.8S2 

8.42 

i 

1225.4-2 

35.01 

10 

78.540 

8.8(5 

40 

1256.64 

35.45 

£ 

86.590 

9.30 

| 

1288.25 

35.89 

11 

95  0  * 

9.75 

41 

13-20.26 

36.34 

| 

10:5.87 

10.19 

k 

1352  66 

3(5.78 

13 

113.10 

10  63 

43 

1385  45 

37  22 

i 

143.74 

11.08 

k 

1418.63 

37.66 

13 

18'i.fll 

11.52 

43 

1452.20 

38.11 

i 

143.14 

11.96 

i 

I48ii.  17 

38.55 

14 

153.94 

12.41 

44 

15-20.53 

3^.99 

| 

1(5-).13 

12.85 

i 

1555  29 

39.44 

15 

176.72 

13.29 

45 

1590.43 

39.88 

i 

18S.69 

13.74 

i 

1625.97 

40.32 

16 

201.06 

14  .18 

46 

16(51.91 

40  77 

i 

213.83 

14  62 

* 

1698.23 

41  21 

17 

2-26.93 

15.  or 

47 

1734.95 

41.65 

i 

240.53 

15.51 

i 

1772.06 

42  10 

18 

254.47 

15  95 

48 

1809.56 

42.  5S 

i 

26-i.  80 

16.40 

i 

1847.46 

4-2.  9S 

19 

283.53 

16.84 

49 

1885.75 

43.43 

i 

2'  18  65 

17.-J8 

k 

1924  43 

43.8? 

80 

314.16 

17  7-2 

50 

1903.50 

44.31 

i 

330  06 

IS.  17 

i 

200-2.97 

44.75 

31 

346.36 

18.61 

51 

2042.83 

45.20 

1 

3C.3  05 

19.05 

| 

2083  08 

45  64 

33 

380.13 

19.50 

53 

21-23.72 

46.  OS 

& 

397.61 

19  94 

| 

21(54.76 

46.53 

33 

415.48 

20.38 

53 

2206.19 

4C..97 

i 

4*1.7* 

20.  H3 

k 

2248.01 

47.41 

34 

452  39 

21.27 

54 

2290.23 

47.86 

i 

471  44 

21.71 

I 

2332.83 

48  30 

35 

4CO  S3 

22.16 

55 

23;  5  83 

48.74 

i 

510  71 

2-2  60 

i 

2419.23 

49  19 

36 

530.93 

23.01 

56 

24(53.01 

49.63 

| 

55  1.  5*> 

23  49 

i 

2507.19 

50.07 

37 

572.56 

23.93 

57 

2551.76 

50.51 

^ 

593.90 

24.37 

i 

2596.73 

50.96 

38 

615.75 

24.81 

58 

2642  09 

51.40 

i 

637.94 

25.26 

i 

2687.81 

51.84 

39 

660  5-2 

25.70 

59 

2733.98 

52.29 

i 

683.49 

26.14 

i 

27K0.51 

52.73 

30 

706.86 

26.59 

60 

2827.74 

53.17 

2 

730.62                  2703 

4 

2874.76 

53.62 

WAGES  TABLE. 


373 


WAGES  TABLE. 
SALARIES  AND  WAGES  BY  THE  YEAR,  MONTH,  WEEK,  OR  DAY, 


SHOWING  WHAT    ANY    SUM    FROM 

is  PER  MONTH,  WKEK,  OR  DAY. 


TO  $1600  PER  ANNUM 


Per  Year 

Per 
Month. 

Per 
Week. 

Per 
Day. 

Per  Year. 

Per 

Month. 

Pel- 
Week. 

Per 

Day. 

S 

»a 

$c. 

$0. 

$ 

to. 

fc. 

$  c. 

20  is 

1.67 

.38 

.05 

280  is 

23.33 

5.37 

.77 

25 

2.08 

.48 

.07 

285 

23.75 

5.47 

.78 

80 

2.50 

.58 

.08 

290 

24  17 

5.56 

.79 

35 

2.92 

.67 

.10 

295 

24.58 

5  66 

.81 

40 

3.33 

.77 

.11 

300 

25.00 

5.75 

.82 

45 

3.75 

.86 

.12 

310 

25.83 

5.95 

.85 

50 

4.17 

.96 

.14 

320 

26.67 

6  14 

.88 

55 

4  58 

1.06 

.15 

325 

27.08 

6.23 

.89 

GO 

5.00 

1.15 

.16 

3:30 

27.50 

6.3J 

.90 

65 

5.42 

1  .25 

.18 

340 

28.33 

6  52 

.93 

70 

5  83 

1  31 

.19 

3^0 

29.17 

6.71 

.96 

75 

6.25 

1.44 

.21 

360 

30.00 

6.'.)0 

.99 

80 

G.67 

1  .53 

.22 

370 

30  83 

".10 

.01 

85 

7.08 

1  63 

.23 

375 

31.25 

.19 

.03 

90 

7.50 

1.73 

.25 

380 

31.67 

".29 

.04 

95 

7.92 

1.82 

.215 

390 

32.50 

".48 

.07 

100 

8.33 

1.92 

.27 

400 

33.33 

"".67 

.10 

105 

8.75 

2.0! 

.29 

425 

35  42 

8.15 

.16 

110 

9.17 

2  11 

.30 

450 

37.50 

8.C3 

.23 

115 

9.58 

2.21 

.32 

475 

39.58 

9.11 

.30 

120 

10.00 

2  30 

.33 

500 

41.67 

9.59 

.37 

125 

10.42 

2  40 

.34 

525 

43  75 

10.07 

.44 

130 

10.83 

2.49 

.36 

550 

45  S3 

10.55 

51 

135 

11  25 

2.59 

.37 

575 

47.92 

11.03 

.58 

140 

11.67 

2.69 

.38 

600 

50  00 

11  51 

64 

145 

12.08 

2  78 

.40 

625 

52.08 

11  99 

71 

150 

12.50 

2  88 

.41 

650 

54  17 

12  47 

78 

155 

12.92 

2  97 

.42 

675 

56.25 

12  95 

.85 

160 

13.33 

3.07 

.44 

700 

58.33 

13.4-.' 

92 

1(55 

13  75 

3.16 

.45 

725 

60.42 

13.90 

99 

170 

14.17 

3.26 

.47 

750 

62  50 

14  38 

2.05 

1T5 

14.58 

3.36 

.48 

775 

64.58 

34.86 

2  12 

180 

15.00 

3.45 

.49 

800 

66.67 

15  34 

2.19 

1*5 

15  42 

3  55 

.51 

825 

68.75 

15.82 

2.26 

190 

15.83 

3.64 

.52 

850 

70.81 

1(5.30 

2  33 

195 

1*5.25 

3  74 

.53 

875 

72.92 

10  78 

2.40 

200 

16.57 

3.84 

.55 

900 

75  00 

17  26 

2  47 

205 

17.08 

.93 

.56 

925 

77.08 

17.74 

2  53 

210 

17  50 

.03 

.58 

950 

79.17 

1«  22 

2  60 

215 

17.92 

.12 

.59 

975 

81.25 

18  70 

2  67 

220 

18  33 

.22 

.60 

1000 

88.83 

19  ]8 

2.74 

225 

18  75 

.31 

.62 

1050 

87  50 

20.14 

2  88 

280 

19.17 

.41 

.63 

1100 

91.67 

21.10 

3  01 

235 

10.58 

.51 

.64 

1150 

95.83 

22  06 

3.15 

240 

20.00 

.60 

.66 

1200 

100  00 

28  01 

3  29 

245 

20.42 

4.70 

.67 

12M) 

104.17 

23.29 

3.42 

250 

2D.  83 

4  79 

.en 

1300 

108.33 

24.93 

3  R6 

855 

21  25 

4.89 

.70 

1350 

112.50 

25.89 

3  70 

2(iO 

21.67 

4  99 

.71 

1400 

llfi.67 

26.85 

3.84 

2R5 

22.08 

5.08 

.73 

1450 

120  K4 

27.  PO 

3.98 

270 

2.  '.50 

5.18 

.74 

1500 

125  00 

2H  77 

4.11 

275 

22.92 

5.27 

.75 

16dO 

K33.34 

30.'  68 

4.38 

NOTE.— If  the  desired  sum  is  nor  in  rhe  table,  double  some  number;  for  in- 
stance, if  the  salary  or  \vages  is  $2000,  double  the  sums  opposite  $1000  and  so 
on  with  the  rest. 


INDEX. 


A 

PAGE 

Addition  and  subtraction  of  decimals 85 

Air-furnaces,  bow  to  construct 57 

Alcohol  and  oils  as  fuel „ 325 

Anchors,  when  and  how  to  use 198 

Ancients,  founding  of  statues  by  the 261 

Annealing,  English  methods  of 304 

Annealing,  explanation  of 317,  328 

Annealing-furnaces,  capacity  of 306 

Annealing,  packing  the  boxes,  or  "  saggers,"  for 304,  305 

Anthracite  coal 53,  326 

Antique  bronze  of  the  Townley  Venus 272 

Antiquity  of  working  in  brass  and  iron 1,  261,  270 

Apothecaries'  weight 369 

Appliances  for  foundries 126 

Arbors  and  loose  wings  for  long  dry  sand-cores 230 

Area  of  circles  and  sides  of  squares  of  the  same  area. .  * 372 

Art    work    of    the    Hebrews,    Babylonians,    Ninevites,    and 

Assyrians 269 

Avoirdupois  weight 369 


B 

Basin,  pouring 182,  186,  255 

Beams,  ad  visibility  of  making  wrought -iron 165 

Beams  and  crosses,  description  of 159 

Beam  and  slings  for  reversing  copes 161,  165 

375 


376  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Beam  hooks 163,  1G5 

Beam  or  cross  bar,  bow  to  set  tbe  binding 208 

Beams,  some  information  about 344 

Bedding  in,  methods  of 222 

Bed-forming,  improved  method  of 223 

Bed  fuel  in  cupola , 44 

Bed  sweep,  "  rolling  over  "  substituted  by  the 219 

Bellows 13 

Berlin  nue  cast-iron  work 295 

Bessemer  converter  described 3o2 

Bessemer  si  eel,  the  prod  ccl  ion  of. 352 

Big  castings  in  litlle  foundries 250 

BUkeiiey  cupola 48 

Blast 13 

Blast,  ancient  methods  of  producing 5 

Blast-furnaces,  examples  of  early 36 

Blast  pressure,  explanation  of 50 

Blister-steel,  the  production  of 3oO 

Block  and  plate  moulding 146 

Blooms  and  slabs 319 

Blowers  and  blowing  engines 13,  51 

Blowers,  some  primitive 127 

Blowing-engine?,  the  first  steam 6 

Boiling  the  metal  in  the  reverberatory  furnace 66 

Brains  versus  muscle 2o3 

Brassing  iron  castings liGl 

Brass.  Scripture  evidence  of  working  in 1 

Brick  cores,  importance  of  open  anil  well-cindered  joints  in. ...  226 

Bronze  age,  the 261,203 

Bronzing  cast  iron  without  metal  or  alloy 8G2 

Bronzing  iron  castings 361,  302 

Block  and  plate  moulding 146 

Buckle  chains,  instructions  for  making 164 

Burning,  arguments  for  and  against 329 

Burning,  a  suitable  ladle  for 3ii5 

Burning,  illustrations  of  and  instructions  for 335 

Burning  in  closed  moulds  341 

Burning,  setting  cores  for 3:j8 

Burning  rolls,  instructions  for 343 

Byazntiuin,  the  art  school  of 266 


377 


C 

PAGE 

Can  books,  how  to  lift  flasks  with 164 

Can  hooks,  how  to  lift  loain  rings  with 163 

Capacity  of  ladles,  to  find  the 105,  107 

Carbon,  graphitic  and  combined , 315 

Carving,  modelling  a  cheap  substitute  for 289 

Car  wheels,  chilled 307 

Case-hardening  cast  iron 338 

Casting,  development  of  the  art  of 270 

Castings,  hidden  faults  in 172 

Castings  in  iron,  who  made  the  first 3 

Castings,  theory  of  chilling 315 

Castings,  weight  and  measurement  of 81 

Cast  iron,  case-hardening 297 

Cast  iron,  decarbonizing 296 

Cast  iron,  English  patent  (1544)  granted  for  making 3 

Cast-iron  mixtures 22,  315 

Cast- iron  pipes 9 

Cast  iron,  softening  and  hardening  elements  in 27 

Cast  iron  statuary,  who  first  made 2 

Cast  iron,  to  chill 359 

Cast  iron,  the  ancients  unacquainted  with  the  uses  of 2 

Cast  iron ,  to  pickle 359 

Cast  iron,  to  soften 359 

Cast  iron,  Turner's  theory  on 25 

Casts  in  metal  from  an  animal,  insect  or  vegetable,  to  take 285 

Casts  iu  plaster,  the  art  of  taking 283 

Cast  steel,  the  production  of 351 

Catalan  forge 13 

Catalan  furnace,  the 36 

Cementation,  making  steel  by, 350 

Cement  for  cast  iron 3">5 

Change  hook,  how  to  make  a 166 

Change- wheel  gear  moulding  machine,  description  of 143 

Chains,  description  of 16,  159 

Chains  four-legged ' 165 

Chains,  how  to  make  common 167 

Chains,  importance  of  having  the  best 167 

Chain-slings,  how  to  make 162,  163,  166 


378  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Chains,  three  legged 165 

Chains,  important  to  have  large  intervening  links  in 167 

Chaplct  bars,  improved 215 

Cliaplet  blocks,  wood  and  iron 211 

Chaplets  fast  to' cores,  how  to  make 209 

Chaplets,  how  to  make  and  use 198 

Charcoal  iron,  characteristics  of 26 

Charging  the  cupola , 45,  54 

Chemical  analysis,  determining  mixtures  by 10,  12 

Chemical  analysis,  mixing  cast-iron  by 24,  26 

Chemist,  metallurgical 24 

Chemistry  in  the  foundry 10,  12,  24,  315 

Chill  cast-iron  very  hard,  to 359 

Chilled  car-wheels,  annealing  of 317 

Chilled  car-wheels,  annenliug-pitsor  ovens  for 318 

Chilled  car-w heels,  core-box  for 309 

Chilled  car-wheels,  flasks  for 310 

Chilled  car-wheels,  how  to  make 307 

Chilled  car-wheels,  mixing  iron  for 316 

Chilled  car-wheel,  mould  view  of  a 311 

Chilled  car  wheels,  patterns  for 308 

Chilled  car-wheels,  testing 321 

Chilled  castings,  instructions  for  annealing 318 

Chills  for  car-whet.s,  description  of 313 

Chimney,  length  of  air-furnace 60 

Chinese  blowing  engine 15 

Cinder  beds,  the  use  of 222 

Circle,  to  find  the  area  of  the 102 

Circle   to  find  the  circumference  and  diameter  of  the 101 

Cire  Perdue,  or  lost  wax  process,  production  of  bronze  statuary 

by  the 2,207,270,  275 

Cleansing  mills,  exhaust 9 

Clamps,  moulders 139 

Clay  thickness  for  statuary  moulds 281 

Clean  moulds  iguorantly  destroyed 1 70 

Cleansing  mill 137 

Coal,  different  kinds  of 326 

Coke,  properties  and  uses  of , 326 

Cold-shuts,  what  produces 179 

Colebrookdale  Foundry,  an  account  of 4 


INDEX.  379 

PAGE 

Collian  cupola  furnace 49 

Colored  casts  in  isinglass 288 

Combined  carboii  iu  cast-iron 28,  315 

Combustion,  science  of 50 

Comparison  of  loam  and  green-sand 236 

Conveyers  for  hauling  material 9,  132,  234 

Copper  on  cast-iron,  to  deposit 3(51 

Core-barrel,  description  of 257 

Core-barrels,  loose  gudgeon  for 257 

Core-boxes,  cheap  and  simply  made 221 

Core  cement  for  bronze  castings 274,  281,  286 

Core- irons  for  cores  of  statue  moulds 271 

Cores  for  statues,  how  to  make  ,     271 

Cores,  how  to  effectually  unite  ponderous 221,  £26 

Cores,  lifting  out  green-sand  lathe-bed 238 

Cores,  systems  of  dividing 220 

Cottar-pins  for  chill  flasks 310 

Covering-plate,  passing  studs  through  the 214 

Covering-plate,  studs  cast  on 214 

Crane-ladles,  dimensions  for ; 76 

Crane-ladles,  how  to  line  up  77 

Cranes,  description  of  various 128 

Cranes,  electric  and  pneumatic , 234 

Cranes,  improvements  in 8 

Crooked  castings,  a  prime  cause  for 179 

Cross  or  four-armed  beam,  to  make  a 161 

Crushing-strength  of  metals  and  other  substances 120,  124 

Crystallized  tin  plate 357 

Cupola,  a  common  39 

Cupola  charging,  direct  methods  for 9 

Cupola,  depth  of  bottom  of 44 

Cupola,  first  charge  of  iron  in 45 

Cupola,  height  of 41 

Cupola,  location  of. 39 

Cupola-man,  importance  of  a  good. . .    33,     54 

Cupola  scaffold,  improved  methods  of  conveying  material  to  the      9 

Cupola,  table  of  particulars  for 42,     43 

Cupola,  tuyeres  for 46 

Cupola  with  drop  bottom 37 

Cupola  with  solid  foundation 37 


380  ESTDEX.. 

PAGE 

Cupolas,  fuel  for 62,  326 

Cupolas,  lining  and  repairing 53 

Cupolas,  melting  capacity  of .- 41 

Cupolas,  some  patent 48 

Cupolas,  total  melting  capacity  of 51 

Cylinders  cast  horizontally,  to  obtain  clean 186 

D 

Dam,  bow  to  preserve  hot  metal  in  a 74 

Dam,  shutters  for  a 73 

Dam,  to  construct  a  large 72 

Dums,  collecting  large  quantities  of  iron  in 68 

Dams  for  spray-runners 187 

Decarbonization,  time  required  for 306 

Decimal  fractions,  how  to  perform 83 

Deep  lifts  in  green-sand  moulding 249 

Depth  of  bot  torn  of  cupola 44 

Diagrams  illustrating  the  flow  of  molten  iron  in  moulds 178 

Dirty  runners,  effect  of..     . 170,  187 

Division  of  decimals , 88 

Division  of  labor,  deterioration  of  skill  caused  by  the 10 

Double-hoop  iron  stud,  to  make  a .-. .  204 

Double  seatings,  method  of 199 

Double  shear-steel  ..   351 

Draw-backs  carried  on  flasks , 249 

Draw-backs,  hinges  applied  to 243 

Draw-bucks,  how  to  construct 242 

Draw-backs,  how  to  save  digging  around 243 

Drawing  air,  the  cause  of,  ami  how  to  prevent 182 

Draw-runners,  examples  of 184 

Drop-runners,  a  description  of 185 

Dry  measure 370 

Dry-sand  cores,  how  to  suspend  long ...  230,  253 

Dry-sand  cores,  some  difficult 280 

£ 

Education,  importance  of  sound 285 

Egyptian  bronze,  mixture  for 282 


INDEX.  381 

PAGE 

Elastic  moulds,  preparation  for 288 

Electric  cranes 128,  234 

Electric  system  of  melting  cast  iron 12 

Elevators  for  cupola  scaffolds. . .   132 

Enamel  for  cast  ings 353,  364 

Engine  and  machine  foundations,  to  mould 237 

Equal  distribution  of  iron  in  the  mould,  bow  to  obtain  an..   180,  183 

Evans's  sand-riddle 136 

Evolution  of  the  iron  founder's  art 1,  261 

Exhaust  tumbling-barrel 137 

Experiments  in  burning  not  always  successful 329,  332 

Eyes  for  rope  tackle 169 

, 

F 

False  cores,  bow  to  manipulate 278 

Fan   blowers 15,  17 

Feeding  by  pressure  explained 196 

Feeding  castings 170,  194 

Fee-ding  castings,  reasons  for 1 94 

Feeding,  use  of  the  riser  in 196 

Finished  surfaces,  how  to  obtain  clean 237 

Fire-brick,  how  to  judge 322 

Fire-clay  and  fire-bricks 321 

Flask-drawback,  how  to  make  and  use  a 249 

Flasks  for  statue  moulding 278 

Flowing  off,  head  pressure 170,  182 

Flow-off  gate,  how  to  form  a 182 

Fluxing  the  charges,  instructions  for 52 

Foremen,  demand  for  superior 10 

Forge  or  puddle-bar  rolls «, 349 

Former,  an  ingenious  bed 219 

Foundation-plate  and  cope-rings 254 

Foundation  plate,  studs  built  on 214 

Foundations  for  cores 206 

Foundations,  importance  of  good 223 

Founders,  old  time  itinerant 4 

Founding,  explanation  of  the  term 1,  22 

Founding  not  sufficiently  recognized  in  our  schools  of  tech* 
uology H 


382  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Founding,  students  needed  in  the  art  of . . . 236 

Foundries,  comparison  of  large  and  small 251 

Foundries,  graduates  from  large 250 

Foundry  appliances 126 

Foundry  arithmetic 81 

Foundry  cupolas 34 

Foundry  equipment,  improvements  in 8 

Foundry  proprietors,  ambition  of 2oO,  300 

Fountain  runners 170,  381 

Fracture,  imperfect  running  one  cause  of 179 

Fracture,  unreliability  of  judging  iron  by  the 25 

French  measures 370 

French  sculpture.   -. 268,  281 

Friction  in  the  mould  during  pouring,  how  to  avoid. .- 181 

Fuel  for  cupolas 52,  326 

Fuel,  nature  and  value  of  different  kinds  of 325 


G 

Galvanizing  gray  iron  castings 362,  363 

Guimister,  explaining  the  nature  and  uses  of 323 

Gate  cutters,  improper  use  of 170,  171 

Gate  cutting,  faulty 170 

Gates,  how  to  form  clean 171 

Geared  ladles 9,  76 

Gear  moulding  by  machinery,  history  of 142 

Gear  moulding  machines 9 

German  sculpture 268 

Girders  for  flasks 215 

Governor-balls,  science  of  running  clean 1 88 

Graphitic  carbon  in  cast  iron 28,  315 

Graphite  or  plumbago,  the  nature  and  uses  of 324 

Grate  or  grid,  the  utility  of  the 247 

Gray  foundry  irons v 31,  315 

Grecian  bronze,  mixture  for 282 

Greek  bronze  statuary,  superiority  of 2G9 

Green  bronze  on  castings 362 

Green-sand  and  loam  work  compared , 236 

Green-sand  copes,  supporting  cores  in  211 

Greeu-sand  cores,  how  to  make  and  handle  very  narrow.    .  240,  244 


INDEX.  383 

PAGE 

Green-sand  moulds,  anchoring  cores  in 210 

Green-sand  moulds,  the  art  of  dividing 236 

Green-sand  moulds,  to  carry  large  areas  of  projecting  sand  iu.. .  245 
Gunther's  chain. . .  .368 


H 

Handling  material , 159 

Handy  contrivances  for  wedging  studs  and  chaplets 215 

Hay  rope,  machines  for  spinning 9,  140 

Heat  waste  in  cupolas,  preventing 11 

Heavy  cores,  supporting 258 

Height  of  cupola 41 

Herbertz's  steam-jet  cupola 21 

High-class  moulding 216 

Hiiching,  unsafe 167 

Hollow-ware  moulding,  the  first  known  example  of 5 

Hooks,  description  of      159 

Horn  gates,  use  of 183 

Horses  for  reversing  copes       161 

How  to  keep  metal  hot  iu  dams 74 

Hydraulic  cylinder  conveniences  for  moulding 253 

Hydraulic  cylinder  moulding  under  difficulties 250 

Hydraulic  cylinder,  pattern  and  core-barrel  for  a 251 


I 

Improvements  in  foundry  appliances , 134 

Inability  of  foremen 160 

Instructions  for  mounting  "  match  plates" 159 

Interest  rules  and  tables 365,  366 

Iron  age.  the 261,  263 

Iron-founding,  process  of 1 

Iron  founder's  art,  evolution  of  the 1,  261 

-Iron,  gray,  mottled,  and  white 315 

Iron  oxide  for  annealing  castings 304 

Iron  smelting,  the  art  of,  known  to  the  ancients 2,  261 

Iron,  scripture  evidences  of  working  in 1 

Iron  sculpture,  methods  adopted  by  the  ancients  to  produce,, . .      2 


384  INDEX. 


PAGE 


Iron,  the  science  of  filling  moulds  with  molten 172 

Isinglass,  to  lake  casts  iii 288 

Iialiau  sculpture 269 


J 

• 

Japanese  fiue  art  work 270 

Japuuiiing  castings S63 

Jupiter  and  Hercules,  ancient  statues  of 266 


L 

Labor  saving  devices  in  the  foundry 8 

Ladles,  dimensions  for  all  sized 78 

Ladles,  how  to  construct  geared 75,  140 

Lathe-beds,  core  lifting  plate  for 238 

Lathe-bed  moulding,  examples  in 237 

Lathe-bed,  pattern  for  a 238 

Lifting  handles,  how  to  make 238,  241,  243,  248 

Lifting  tackle 160 

Lining  and  repairing  cupolas 53 

Liquid  measure  807 

Loam  and  green-sand  work  compared 2o6 

Loam  mills 9,138 

Loam-moulding,  change  of  method  to  save  cost  in . .     224 

Loam-moulds,  method  of  stiffening 2~j5 

Loam-moulds,  vertically  cast 223,  253 

Loam- work,  binding  and  lifting  long  cores  in 2'iS 

Loam- work,  building  critical  cores  in 225 

Loam-work,  sectional  arrangements  in   220.  2fi3 

Long  castings  all  from  one  end,  dangers  of  running 190.  219 

Lugs  on  loam  plates. 163,  254 


M 

Machine  and  engine  foundations,  to  mould 237 

Machines  for  moulding  gear-wheels 142 

Mackenzie  cupola 48 

Mackenzie  pressure  blower 19 


INDEX.  385 

PAGE 

Malleable  cast-iron,  the  theory  of 301,  305 

Malleable-iron  castings 296 

Malleable-iron,  sixteenth-century  systems  of  producing 3 

Malleable-iron  castings,  annealing  furnaces  for 303,  304 

Malleable-iron  castings,  gales  required  for 300 

Mulluuble-irou  castings,  making  moulds  for 299 

Mai leable-iron  castings,  melting  iron  for 800 

Malleable-iron  castings,  processes  for  annealing 303 

Malleable-iron  castings,  softness,  flexibility,  and  specific  gravity 

of 297 

Malleable  iron  castings,  the  proper  quality  of  pig-iron  for 298 

Machinery,  the  first -cast ings  for 7 

Manganese  in  cast-iron,  influence  of 29 

Main  blast-pipe,  diameter  of 45 

Match  plates,  how  to  mount,  etc 159,  300 

Measure  of  surface 308 

Medals,  to  take  casts  from 287 

Melting  points  of  alloys 121 

Melting  points  of  metals 119,  121 

Melting,  science  of 34 

Mensuration,  definitions  in 96 

Mineral  wool,  explanation  of 355 

Mixing  cast  iron 22,  315 

Mixing  iron,  the  use  of  tanks  for 317 

Modeller's  clay,  ingredients  for  making 290 

Modelling  in  clay,  pattern 289 

Modelling  in  clny,  instructions  for 290 

Model  or  pattern,  how  in  moulding  statuary  to  save  the 280 

Models  of'statues  in  plaster 271 

Modern  improvements,  foundries  now  supplied  with 234,  250 

Modern  moulding-machines 147 

Mortars,  method  of  casting 195 

Mould,  facility  in  closing  a  large  green-sand 223 

Moulders,  past  and  present 

Moulders,  want  of  education  amongst 219 

Moulding  a  four-chambered  ventilating  shaft 2 

Moulding,  advanced  practice  in  high-class 216 

Moulding,  danger  of  generalizing  the  subject  of 236 

Moulding- machines 9«  126»  147«  3' 

Moulding -machines,  their  utility  discussed U8,  300 


386  INDEX. 

PAOB 

Moulding,  past  and  present 216 

Moulding  statuary  in  sand ....  277 

Moulding  statues  from  plaster  models 271 

Moulds,  a  handy  device  for  separating  245 

Moulds  for  plaster  casts,  bees-wax,  dough  and  bread-crumbs  as.  284 

Moulds,  lifting  Irregular-formed 1G5 

Moulds,  to  fasten  chaplets  to 209 

Moulds,  to  make  elastic 288 

Multiplication  of  decimals 86 


N 

Natural  gas  as  a  fuel,  the  great  value  of 827 

Nelson  monument,  the 270 


O 

Open-sand  casting 173 

Open-sand,  fly-wheels  in 173 

Open-sand  moulds,  incompetency  of  moulders  to  construct 173 

Open-sand  plates,  difficulty  of  casting 174 

Open-sand  plates,  to  successfully  cast. 174 

Open-sand  work,  decreased  cost  for 176 

Outside  runners  and  gates  for  loam  work,  how  to  arrange. .  193,  255 

Overhead  trolley  for  conveying  molten  iron 8 

Overhead  trolley  system 129 


P 

Peat  and  turf  as  fuels. ..  826 

Percentage  in  the  foundry 113 

Phosphorus  in  cast  iron,  influence  of 29 

Pickling,  scaling  and  cleaning  cast-iron 359 

Pig  iron,  bought  and  sold  on  analysis 27 

Pig  iron,  capacity  of  furnaces,  1740,  for  producing 3 

Pig  iron,  chemical  substances  found  in 27,  315 

Pig-iron  truck  and  foundry  scales 135 

Piston  blowers 15 

Pit-ramming,  methods  for  obviating 145 


387 


Plaster  bl 
Plaster  cast 
Plaster  core-boxes? 

Plaster  for  moulds  or  cas^sTlToWt'cftinfr!T7 283 

Plaster  models  of  statues  for  the  founder 271 

Plaster  moulds,  to  prevent  patterns  from  adhering  to 283 

Plate  moulding  and  plaster  blocks 146 

Polygons,  to  find  the  area  of 99 

Pneumatic  cranes 129,  234 

Portable  furnaces  in  olden  times 4 

Pouring-basin,  how  to  construct  a 182,  255 

Pouring  castings,  the  art  of 170,  173,  182,  255 

Pouring  heavy  castings 67,  68 

Pouring,  to  obtain  the  minimum  of  friction  whilst 181 

Precious  metals,  scripture  evidences  of  working  in 1 

Pressure  in  moulds 218 

Puddling  described 347 

Pythagoras,  the  great  sculptor 265 


Ramming  chill  car- wheels,  the  art  of 313 

Refinery- furnace,  description  of  a 346 

Refining,  puddling,  shingling  and  rolling 348 

Reaumur's  methods  of  making  pig  iron,  1722 3 

Regenerative  furnace,  Siemens 300,  304 

Remelting  east  iron,  effect  of 28 

ill-pairing  broken  castings  by  burning 329 

Keverberatory  furnace,  charging-doors  for 60 

liuverberatory  furnace,  charging  the - 63 

Reverberatory  furnace,  fuel  for 63 

Reverberatory  furnace,  sand  bottom  for 63 

Reverberatory  or  air  furnaces 55 

Revolving  screen  for  mixing  sand 137 

Risers,  when  to  place,  etc 191,  196 

Riveted  chaplets,  inadvisability  of  using 212 

Rolling-mill,  invention  of  the 7 

Rolls  and  shafts,  burning 342 

Roots'  pressure  blower 19,  20 

Homan  bronze,  mixture  for 283 


388  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Round  columns,  how  to  run 191 

Rope  can  Looks , 169 

Rope  hitches,  to  make 167 

Ropes,  description  of 159, 168 

Rope  tackle  described 168 

Rotary  hlowers 19 

Roughing  jiud  finishing  rolls 349 

Riddles,  screen,  sliding,  swinging,  and  revolving 135 

Rules  for  finding  the  weights  of  castings 95 

Runner  for  open-sand  plates 174 

Runners,  heavy  work 71 

Runners,  reasons  for  the  superiority  of  drop , 185 

Running  pipes  at  the  flanges 190 

Rust  from  cast  or  wrought  iron,  to  remove 360 

Rusty  studs,  why  we  should  avoid 200 


8 

Sand  friction,  experiments  on , 150 

Sand  for  statues , 279 

Sand  riddles,  improved  machine 135 

Saxon  and  Norman  periods  of  sculpture 266 

Scales,  improved  cupola 134 

Scales,  smithy  and  rolling-mill 304 

Schiele's  compound  blowing  fan 17 

Scotch  irons,  the  requisite  elements  in 28 

Scrap,  how  to  melt  fine 32 

Scrap,  how  to  melt  massive  pieces  of 57 

Scrap  pile,  value  of  the 23,  33 

Screw  clamp  for  crane-hook 168 

Screw  propellers 145 

Screw  propeller,  how  our  forefathers  moulded  the 8 

Screw  propellers,  improved  methods  of  moulding 145 

Scripture  lengths 367 

Scripture  measures  of  capacity 368 

Sculptor  and  moulder,  relationship  of 270,  276 

Sculptor,  reproducing  in  metal  the  work  of  the 261 

Sculpture,  ancient  schools  of 26ii 

Sectional  moulding  for  heavy  green-sand  work 233 

Shackle,  use  of  the 232 


INDEX.  389 

PAGE 

Shear-steel,  single  and  double ,  351 

Shear  steel,  the  production  of 351 

Shingling  described 349 

Shrinkage,  the  cause  of  inequality  in 179 

Shutters  for  dams,  how  to  make  and  fit . . .  .^. .   73 

Siemens  regenerative  furnace 349,  351 

J^igns  in  mensuration 82 

Silicon  in  cast  iron,  influences  of 30 

Silicon,  properties  of 24,  25 

Silicon,  W.  I.  Keep  on 31 

Simpson's  gear  moulding-machine,  description  of 143 

Single-spliced  rope  sling 169 

Slag  in  cupolas,  how  to  manage  the 52 

Slings,  description  of 159,  161,  1(55 

Smeaton's  blowing-engine 15 

Smelting,  Indian  mode  of 127 

Smelt  ing  in  olden  times 36 

Smelling.  !he  ancients'  skill  in  the  art  of 2,  261 

Soft  and  hard  iron  for  burning 334 

Softening  cast  iron 359 

Soft  castings,  to  produce 28 

Soldering  gray  cast  iron 360 

Solidity,  measures  of 369 

Special  preparations,  cases  requiring 1(51 

Specific  gravity  of  metals  and  other  substances 120,  125 

Spiral  drum,  how  to  gate  a 194 

Spiral  post,  to  mould  a 292 

Sponginess,  how  shrinkage  causes 195 

Springers,  use  cf 207 

Spring  chaplets,  how  to  make  and  use 203 

Square  columns,  how  to  run , 190 

Statuary,  building  <-opes  for 275 

Statuary  in  cast  iron,  how  to  mould 276 

Statuary  in  sections,  how  to  mould  large 277 

.Statuary,  method  of  making  small 280 

Statuary  or  modeller's  wax,  composition  for 275 

S'.atut'S,  founding  of 261 

Statuettes,  busts,  etc.,  in  plaster,  to  make 285 

Statue  of  Liberty,  New  York  Harbor 277 

Steam  hydraulic  crimes 129 


390  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Steel,  burning  on  to 837 

Steel,  discovery  by  the  Romans  of  making 262 

Steel,  manufacture  of , 350 

Stem  chaplets,  cast  and  wrought 204 

Stevens  Institute,  a  good  word  for  the. 11 

Stewart  rapid  cupola 49 

Straw  ropes,  machine-made 140 

Strippiiig-pljite,  the... 10,  147 

Studs  and  chaplets,  an  object  lesson  in ~06,  258 

Stud  plates,  use  of 222 

Studs  and  chaplets,  danger  from  melting  of 201 

Studs  and  clmplets,  how  to  avoid  using 1(J8 

Studs  and  chaplets,  how  to  wedge  down 208 

Studs  and  chaplets,  how  to  render  harmless  all 201 

Studs  and  chaplets,  supporting  great  weights  on 213,  281,  2-18 

Studs  and  chaplets,  to  prevent  slipping  in 201,  213,  223 

Studs,  danger  of  melting  cast  iron 202 

Studs,  explanation  of  the  use  of 198 

Studs  for  chilled  car-wheel  cores,  improved 310,  813 

Studs,  how  to  make  wrought  iron 202 

Studs,  how  to  make  light  cast  iron 202 

Sturtevant  pressure  blower 17 

Substances  used  for  forming  plaster  moulds 283 

Sulphur  casts  of  medals,  etc 287 

Sulphur  in  cast  iron,  influence  of  29 

Supporting  studs 214,  231 

Swinging  long  cores,  method  of 253,  257,  259 


T 

Table  of  instructions  for  working  the  cupola 42,  43 

Table  of  ladles  from  25  pounds  to  16  tons  capacity 78 

Table  of  weights,  strength,  melting  points,  specific  gravity,  etc.  118 

"Tabor"  moulding-machine,  description  of  the 152 

Technical  schools,  modelling  taught  in 289 

Technological  schools,  more  substantial  recognition  of  the  foun- 
dry demanded  in  the 11 

"  Teetor  "  moulding-machine,  description  of  the 157 

Temperature,  important  that  iron  enter  the  mould  at  an  even...  180 
Tensile  strength  of  metals  and  other  substances 119,  122 


INDEX.  391 

PAGE 

Testing  bars,  description  of 122 

Testing  chilled  car-wheels  821 

Testing  machines 122,  130 

Testing  the  nature  and  quality  of  cast  iron 10,  33 

Theodoras  of  Samos 264 

Theory  of  chilling  castings     315 

Thin  covered  plates,  how  to  run 177 

Tinning 356 

Tinning  iron  pots,  etc 358 

Tinning  metal,  Kustitiens  357 

Tinning  studs  and  chaplets 358 

Torsional  strength  of  substances 120,  124 

Toughness  of  metals 120,  124 

Tracks  and  foundry  trucks 131 

Tracks,  uses  of  well- laid 8 

Transverse  strength  of  metals  and  other  substances. . .  120,  122,  123 

Tripod,  illustrations  and  explanation  of  the 255,  258 

Tromp  blower,  description  of  the 37 

Troy  weight 369 

Tumbling-barrel,  exhaust 137 

Tumbuckles 165,  166 

Tuyeres  for  cupolas 37,  46 


U 
Underground  blast-pipes 39 


Varnishes  for  iron-work 354 

Varnish  for  patterns 354 

Vent-pipe,  anchoring  cores  by  means  of  the 211 

Vents,  how  best  to  insure  perfect 22Q 


W 

Wnges  table 373 

Washburn  wheel : 307 

Wax,  forming  gates  and  vents  in 274,  291 


392  INDEX. 

PAGK 

Wax,  how  to  pour  plaster  moulds  with  modellers 291 

Wax  patterns,  varnish  for 292 

Wax  thickness  for  statuary  moulds 271,  280 

Wax  used  by  modellers,  ingredients  of,  and  how  to  make 292 

Weights  and  measures 367 

Weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  metal ; 119,  121 

Weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  metal '. 119,  121 

Weight  of  balls,  to  find  the. Ill 

Weight  of  circular  plates  and  circular  solids,  to  find  the 103 

Weight  of  cylinders,  pipes,  wheel-rims,  columns,  etc.,  to  find 

the 103 

Weight  of  flat  bottomed  tanks,  pans,  etc.,  to  find  the... -r 108 

Weight  of  pans  with  spherical  or  round  bottoms,  etc.,  to  find 

the 110 

Wheel  arm,  burning  a  broken 341 

Wheels,  centre  core-runners  for 192 

Wheel-tooth,  how  to  burn  on  a 3ii6 

Wind-box,  or  chamber 39 

Wood-charcoal,  value  as  a  fuel  of 31Q 

Worm-pinions  on  end,  moulding 145 

Wrought  and  cast  iron  from  steel,  to  distinguish 353 

Wrought  iron,  processes  for  manufacturing 346 


y 

"  Yielding  platen  "  moulding-machine,  description  of  the 155 

Z 
Zinc,  cast  iron,  or  brass,  to  scour 360 


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